FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002)

AIRCRAFT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

19-42. Once the pilot of a fixed-wing aircraft has sighted you, he

will normally indicate he has seen you by flying low, moving the

plane, and flashing lights as shown in Figure 19-9, page 19-17. Be

ready to relay other messages to the pilot once he acknowledges

that he received and understood your first message. Use a radio,

if possible, to relay further messages. If no radio is available, use

the codes covered in the previous paragraphs.

AIRCRAFT VECTORING PROCEDURES

19-43. To establish initial contact, use beacon for 15 seconds, use

voice for 15 seconds (Mayday, Mayday, Mayday—this is call sign),

then listen for 15 seconds. When you contact a friendly aircraft

with a radio, guide the pilot to your location. Use the following

general format to guide the pilot:

• Call sign (if any).

• Name.

• Location (clock direction and distance from aircraft to your

location).

• Enemy disposition and location.

• Number of people needing to be rescued.

• Available landing sites.

• Any remarks such as medical aid or other specific types of

help needed immediately.

• Give any guidance or steering corrections to the pilot from

their perspective to remove any chance of error. For

example, if the aircraft needs to turn left to pass over your

position, tell the pilot to steer left. As he begins to come

close to the correct heading, tell him to “roll out.” Continue

to make corrections as necessary to align the aircraft with

you. Give the pilot estimates of distance from you as

well, and be prepared to give a countdown to your position.

Example: “You are one mile out… one-half mile out…

you’ll be over my position in ten seconds, nine, eight,

seven, six, five, four, three, two, one, mark.” This

will aid the pilot in estimating your range over the

plane’s nose. Remember that pilots may not be able to

19-16

Chapter 20

Survival Movement In Hostile Areas

The “rescue at any cost” philosophy of previous

conflicts is not likely to be possible in future

conflicts. Our potential adversaries have made

great progress in air defense measures and radio

direction finder

(RDF) techniques. We must

assume that U.S. military forces trapped behind

enemy lines in future conflicts may not

experience quick recovery by friendly elements.

Soldiers may have to move for extended times

and distances to places less threatening to the

recovery forces. The soldier will not likely know

the type of recovery to expect. Each situation and

the available resources determine the type of

recovery possible. Since no one can be absolutely

sure until the recovery effort begins, soldiers

facing a potential cutoff from friendly forces

should be familiar with all the possible types of

recovery, their related problems, and their

responsibilities

the recovery effort.

Preparation and training can improve the

chances of success.

PHASES OF PLANNING

20-1. Preparation is a requirement for all missions.

When

planning, you must consider how to avoid capture and return to

your unit. Evasion plans must be prepared in conjunction with

unit standing operating procedures

(SOPs) and current joint

doctrine. You must also consider any courses of action (COAs)

that you or your unit will take.

EVASION PLAN OF ACTION

20-2. Successful evasion is dependent on effective prior planning.

The responsibility ultimately rests on the individual concerned.

Sound evasion planning should incorporate intelligence

20-1

briefings—selected areas for evasion; area intelligence

descriptions; E&R area studies; survival, evasion, resistance, and

escape (SERE) guides and bulletins; isolated personnel reports;

and an evasion plan of action (EPA).

20-3. The study and research needed to develop the EPA will

make you aware of the current situation in your mission area.

Your EPA will let recovery forces know your probable actions

should you have to move to avoid capture.

20-4. You should start preparing even before premission

planning. Portions of the EPA are the unit SOP. Include the EPA

in your training. Planning starts in your daily training.

20-5. The EPA is your entire plan for your return to friendly

control. It consists of five paragraphs written in the operation

order format. You can take most of Paragraph I—Situation, with

you on the mission. Appendix I contains the EPA format and

indicates what portion of the EPA you can take on the mission.

20-6. A comprehensive EPA is a valuable asset to the soldier

trapped behind enemy lines attempting to avoid capture. To

complete Paragraph I, know your unit’s assigned area or

concentrate on potential mission areas of the world. Many open or

closed sources contain the information you need to complete an

EPA. Open sources may include newspapers, magazines, country

or area handbooks, area studies, television, radio, internet,

persons familiar with the area, and libraries. Use caution with

open source information; it may be unreliable. Closed sources

may include area studies, area assessments, SERE contingency

guides, SECRET Internet Protocol Router Network, various

classified field manuals, and intelligence reports.

20-7. Prepare your EPA in three phases. During your normal

training, prepare Paragraph I—Situation. Prepare Paragraphs II,

III, IV, and V during your premission planning. After deployment

into an area, continually update your EPA based on situation or

mission changes and intelligence updates.

20-8. The EPA is a guide. You may add or delete certain portions

based on the mission. The EPA may be a recovery force’s only

means of determining your location and intentions after you start

to evade. It is an essential tool for your survival and return to

friendly control.

20-2

STANDING OPERATING PROCEDURES

20-9. Your unit SOPs are valuable tools that will help you plan

your EPA. When faced with a dangerous situation requiring

immediate action, it is not the time to discuss options; it is the

time to act. Many of the techniques used during small unit

movement can be carried over to fit requirements for moving and

returning to friendly control. Items from the SOP should include,

but are not limited to—

• Movement team size (three to four persons per team).

• Team communications (technical and nontechnical).

• Essential equipment.

• Actions at danger areas.

• Signaling techniques.

• Immediate action drills.

• Linkup procedures.

• Helicopter recovery devices and procedures.

• Security procedures during movement and at hide sites.

• Rally points.

20-10. Rehearsals work effectively for reinforcing these SOP skills

and also provide opportunities for evaluation and improvement.

NOTIFICATION TO MOVE AND AVOID CAPTURE

20-11. An isolated unit has several general COAs it can take to

avoid the capture of the group or individuals. These COAs are not

courses the commander can choose instead of his original mission.

He cannot arbitrarily abandon the assigned mission. Rather, he

may adopt these COAs after completing his mission when his unit

cannot complete its assigned mission (because of combat power

losses) or when he receives orders to extract his unit from its

current position. If such actions are not possible, the commander

may decide to have the unit try to move to avoid capture and

return to friendly control. In either case, as long as there is

communication with higher headquarters, that headquarters will

make the decision.

20-12. If the unit commander loses contact with higher

headquarters, he must make the decision to move or wait. He

20-3

bases his decision on many factors, including the mission, rations

and ammunition on hand, casualties, the chance of relief by

friendly forces, and the tactical situation. The commander of an

isolated unit faces other questions. What COA will inflict

maximum damage on the enemy? What COA will assist in

completing the higher headquarters’ overall mission?

20-13. Movement teams conduct the execution portion of the plan

when notified by higher headquarters or, if there is no contact

with higher headquarters, when the highest ranking person

decides that the situation requires the unit to try to escape

capture or destruction. Movement team leaders receive their

notification through prebriefed signals. Once the signal to try to

avoid capture is given, it must be passed rapidly to all personnel.

Notify higher headquarters, if possible. If unable to communicate

with higher headquarters, leaders must recognize that organized

resistance has ended, and that organizational control has ceased.

Command and control is now at the movement team or individual

level and is returned to higher organizational control only after

reaching friendly lines.

EXECUTION

20-14. Upon notification to avoid capture, all movement team

members will try to link up at the initial evasion point (IEP). This

point is where team members rally and actually begin their

evasion. Tentatively select the IEP during your planning phase

through a map reconnaissance. Once on the ground, the team

verifies this location or selects a better one. All team members

must know its location. The IEP should be easy to locate and

occupy for a minimum amount of time.

20-15. Once the team has rallied at the IEP, it must—

• Give first aid.

• Inventory its equipment (decide what to abandon, destroy,

or take along).

• Apply camouflage.

• Make sure everyone knows the tentative hide locations.

• Ensure everyone knows the primary and alternate routes

and rally points en route to the hide locations.

20-4

• Always maintain security.

• Split the team into smaller elements. The ideal element

should have two to three members; however, it could

include more depending on team equipment and

experience.

20-16. The movement portion of returning to friendly control is

the most dangerous as you are now most vulnerable. It is usually

better to move at night because of the concealment darkness

offers. Exceptions to such movement would be when moving

through hazardous terrain or dense vegetation

(for example,

jungle or mountainous terrain). When moving, avoid the following

even if it takes more time and energy to bypass:

• Obstacles and barriers.

• Roads and trails.

• Inhabited areas.

• Waterways and bridges.

• Natural lines of drift.

• Man-made structures.

• All civilian and military personnel.

20-17. Movement in enemy-held territory is a very slow and

deliberate process. The slower you move and the more careful you

are, the better. Your best security will be using your senses. Use

your eyes and ears to detect people before they detect you. Make

frequent listening halts. In daylight, observe a section of your

route before you move along it. The distance you travel before you

hide will depend on the enemy situation, your health, the terrain,

the availability of cover and concealment for hiding, and the

amount of darkness left. See Chapter 22 for more movement and

countertracking techniques.

20-18. Once you have moved into the area in which you want to

hide (hide area), select a hide site. Keep the word BLISS in mind

when selecting a hide site:

• B-Blends in with the surroundings.

• L-Low in silhouette.

• I-Irregular in shape.

20-5

• S-Small in size.

• S-Secluded.

20-19. Avoid the use of existing buildings or shelters. Usually,

your best option will be to crawl into the thickest vegetation you

can find. Construct any type of shelter within the hide area only

in cold weather and desert environments. If you build a shelter,

follow the BLISS formula.

HIDE SITE ACTIVITIES

20-20. After you have located your hide site, do not move straight

into it. Use a buttonhook or other deceptive technique to move to

a position outside of the hide site. Conduct a listening halt before

moving individually into the hide site. Be careful not to disturb or

cut any vegetation. Once you have occupied the hide site, limit

your activities to maintaining security, resting, camouflaging, and

planning your next moves.

20-21. Maintain your security through visual scanning and

listening. Upon detection of the enemy, the security personnel

alert all personnel, even if the team’s plan is to stay hidden and

not move upon sighting the enemy. Take this action so that

everyone is aware of the danger and ready to react.

20-22. If any team member leaves the team, give him a five-point

contingency plan. It should include—Who is going? Where are

they going? How long will they be gone? What to do if they are

hit or don’t return on time? Where to go if anyone is hit?

20-23. It is extremely important to stay healthy and alert when

trying to avoid capture. Take every opportunity to rest, but do not

sacrifice security. Rotate security so that all members of your

movement team can rest. Treat all injuries, no matter how minor.

Loss of your health will mean loss of your ability to continue to

avoid capture.

20-24. Camouflage is an important aspect of both moving and

securing a hide site. Always use a buddy system to ensure that

camouflage is complete. Ensure that team members blend with

the hide site. Use natural or man-made materials. If you add any

additional camouflage material to the hide site, do not cut

vegetation in the immediate area.

20-6

20-25. Plan your next actions while at the hide site. Start your

planning process immediately upon occupying the hide site.

Inform all team members of their current location and designate

an alternate hide site location. Once this is done, start planning

for the team’s next movement.

20-26. Planning the team’s movement begins with a map

reconnaissance. Choose the next hide area first. Then choose a

primary and an alternate route to the hide area. In choosing the

routes, do not use straight lines. Use one or two radical changes

in direction. Pick the routes that offer the best cover and

concealment, the fewest obstacles, and the least likelihood of

contact with humans. There should be locations along the route

where the team can get water. To aid team navigation, use

azimuths, distances, checkpoints or steering marks, and

corridors. Plan rally points and rendezvous points at intervals

along the route.

20-27. Other planning considerations may fall under what the

team already has in the team SOP. Examples are immediate

action drills, actions on sighting the enemy, and hand-and-arm

signals.

20-28. Once planning is complete, ensure everyone knows and

memorizes the entire plan. The team members should know the

distances and azimuths for the entire route to the next hide area.

They should study the map and know the various terrain they

will be moving across so that they can move without using the

map.

20-29. Do not occupy a hide site for more than 24 hours. In most

situations, hide during the day and move at night. Limit your

actions in the hide site to those discussed above. Once in the hide

site, restrict all movement to less than 45 centimeters (18 inches)

above the ground. Do not build fires or prepare food. Smoke and

food odors will reveal your location. Before leaving the hide site,

sterilize it to prevent tracking.

HOLE-UP AREAS

20-30. After moving and hiding for several days, usually three or

four, you or the movement team will have to move into a hole-up

area. This is an area where you can rest, recuperate, and get and

prepare food. Choose an area near a water source. You then have

20-7

a place to get water, to place fishing devices, and to trap game.

Since waterways are a line of communication, locate your hide

site well away from the water.

20-31. The hole-up area should offer plenty of cover and

concealment for movement in and around the area. Always

maintain security while in the hole-up area. Always man the

hole-up area. Actions in the hole-up area are the same as in the

hide site, except that you can move away from the hole-up area to

get and prepare food. While in the hole-up area, you can—

• Select and occupy the next hide site (remember you are

still in a dangerous situation; this is not a friendly area).

• Reconnoiter the area for resources and potential concealed

movement routes to the alternate hide site.

• Gather food

(nuts, berries, vegetables). When moving

around the area for food, maintain security and avoid

leaving tracks or other signs. When setting traps and

snares, keep them well-camouflaged and in areas where

people are not likely to discover them. Remember, the local

population sometimes heavily travels trails near water

sources.

• Get water from sources within the hide area. Be careful

not to leave tracks of signs along the banks of water

sources when getting water. Moving on hard rocks or logs

along the banks to get water will reduce the signs you

leave.

• Set clandestine fishing devices, such as stakeouts, below

the surface of the water to avoid detection.

• Locate a fire site well away from the hide site. Use this site

to prepare food or boil water. Camouflage and sterilize the

fire site after each use. Be careful that smoke and light

from the fire does not compromise the hole-up area.

20-32. While in the hole-up area, security is still your primary

concern. Designate team members to perform specific tasks. To

limit movement around the area, you may have a two-man team

perform more than one task. For example, the team getting water

could also set the fishing devices. Do not occupy the hole-up area

longer than 72 hours.

20-8

RETURN TO FRIENDLY CONTROL

20-33. Establishing contact with friendly lines or patrols is the

most crucial part of movement and return to friendly control. All

your patience, planning, and hardships will be in vain if you do

not exercise caution when contacting friendly frontline forces.

Friendly patrols have killed personnel operating behind enemy

lines because they did not make contact properly. Most of the

casualties could have been avoided if caution had been exercised

and a few simple procedures followed. The normal tendency is to

throw caution to the wind when in sight of friendly forces. You

must overcome this tendency and understand that linkup is a

very sensitive situation.

BORDER CROSSINGS

20-34. If you have made your way to a friendly or neutral country,

use the following procedures to cross the border and link up with

friendly forces on the other side:

• Occupy a hide site on the near side of the border and send

a team out to reconnoiter the potential crossing site.

• Surveil the crossing site for at least 24 hours, depending on

the enemy situation.

• Make a sketch of the site, taking note of terrain, obstacles,

guard routines and rotations, and any sensor devices or

trip wires. Once the reconnaissance is complete, the team

moves to the hide site, briefs the rest of the team, and

plans to cross the border at night.

• After crossing the border, set up a hide site on the far side

of the border and try to locate friendly positions. Do not

reveal your presence.

• Depending on the size of your movement team, have two

men surveil the potential linkup site with friendly forces

until satisfied that the personnel are indeed friendly.

• Make contact with the friendly forces during daylight.

Personnel chosen to make contact should be unarmed,

have no equipment, and have positive identification readily

available. The person who actually makes the linkup

should be someone who looks least like the enemy.

20-9

• During the actual contact, have only one person make the

contact. The other person provides the security and

observes the link-up area from a safe distance. The

observer should be far enough away so that he can warn

the rest of the movement team if something goes wrong.

• Wait until the party he is contacting looks in his direction

so that he does not surprise the contact. He stands up from

behind cover, with hands overhead and states that he is an

American. After this, he follows any instructions given

him. He avoids answering any tactical questions and does

not give any indication that there are other team members.

• Reveal that there are other personnel with him only after

verifying his identity and satisfying himself he has made

contact with friendly forces.

20-35. Language problems or difficulties confirming identities

may arise. The movement team should maintain security, be

patient, and have a contingency plan.

NOTE: If you are moving to a neutral country, you are

surrendering to that power and become a detained person.

LINKUP AT THE FORWARD EDGE OF THE BATTLE AREA

OR FORWARD LINE OF OWN TROOPS

20-36. If caught between friendly and enemy forces and there is

heavy fighting in the area, you may choose to hide and let the

friendly lines pass over you. If overrun by friendly forces, you may

try to link up from their rear during daylight hours. If overrun by

enemy forces, you may move further to the enemy rear, try to

move to the forward edge of the battle area or forward line of own

troops during a lull in the fighting, or move to another area along

the front.

20-37. The actual linkup will be done as for linkup during a

border crossing. The only difference is that you must be more

careful on the initial contact. Frontline personnel are more likely

to shoot first and ask questions later, especially in areas of heavy

fighting. You should be near or behind cover before trying to

make contact.

20-10

LINKUP WITH FRIENDLY PATROLS

20-38. If friendly lines are a circular perimeter or an isolated

camp, for example, any direction you approach from will be

considered enemy territory. You do not have the option of moving

behind the lines and trying to link up. This move makes the

linkup extremely dangerous. One option you have is to place the

perimeter under observation and wait for a friendly patrol to

move out in your direction, providing a chance for a linkup. You

may also occupy a position outside of the perimeter and call out to

get the attention of the friendly forces. Ideally, display anything

that is white while making contact. If nothing else is available,

use any article of clothing. The idea is to draw attention while

staying behind cover. Once you have drawn attention to your

signal and called out, follow instructions given to you.

20-39. Be constantly on the alert for friendly patrols because

these provide a means for return to friendly control. Find a

concealed position that allows you maximum visual coverage of

the area. Try to memorize every terrain feature so that, if

necessary, you can infiltrate to friendly positions under the cover

of darkness. Remember, trying to infiltrate in darkness is

extremely dangerous.

20-40. Because of the missions of combat and reconnaissance

patrols and where they are operating, making contact can be

dangerous. If you decide not to make contact, you can observe

their route and approach friendly lines at about the same

location. Such observation will enable you to avoid mines and

booby traps.

20-41. Once you have spotted a patrol, remain in position and, if

possible, allow the patrol to move toward you. When the patrol is

25 to 50 meters (83 to 165 feet) from your position, signal them

and call out a greeting that is clearly and unmistakably of

American origin.

20-42. If you have nothing white, an article of clothing will suffice

to draw attention. If the distance is greater than 50 meters (165

feet), a reconnaissance patrol may avoid contact and bypass your

position. If the distance is less than 25 meters (83 feet), a patrol

member may react instantly by firing a fatal shot.

20-11

Chapter 21

Camouflage

In a survival situation, especially in a hostile

environment, you may find it necessary to

camouflage yourself, your equipment, and your

movement. Effective camouflage may mean the

difference between survival and capture by the

enemy. Camouflage and movement techniques,

such as stalking, will also help you get animals

or game for food using primitive weapons and

skills.

PERSONAL CAMOUFLAGE

21-1. When camouflaging yourself, consider that certain shapes

are particular to humans. The enemy will look for these shapes.

The shape of a hat, helmet, or black boots can give you away.

Even animals know and run from the shape of a human

silhouette. Break up your outline by placing small amounts of

vegetation from the surrounding area in your uniform,

equipment, and headgear. Try to reduce any shine from skin or

equipment. Blend in with the surrounding colors and simulate

the texture of your surroundings.

SHAPE AND OUTLINE

21-2. Change the outline of weapons and equipment by tying

vegetation or strips of cloth onto them. Make sure the added

camouflage does not hinder the equipment’s operation. When

hiding, cover yourself and your equipment with leaves, grass, or

other local debris. Conceal any signaling devices you have

prepared, but keep them ready for use.

COLOR AND TEXTURE

21-3. Each area of the world and each climatic condition

(arctic/winter, temperate/jungle, or swamp/desert) has color

patterns and textures that are natural for that area. While color

is self-explanatory, texture defines the surface characteristics of

something when looking at it. For example, surface textures may

21-1

be smooth, rough, rocky, leafy, or many other possible

combinations. Use color and texture together to camouflage

yourself effectively. It makes little sense to cover yourself with

dead, brown vegetation in the middle of a large grassy field.

Similarly, it would be useless to camouflage yourself with green

grass in the middle of a desert or rocky area.

21-4. To hide and camouflage movement in any specific area of

the world, you must take on the color and texture of the

immediate surroundings. Use natural or man-made materials to

camouflage yourself. A few examples include camouflage paint,

charcoal from burned paper or wood, mud, grass, leaves, strips of

cloth or burlap, pine boughs, and camouflaged uniforms.

21-5. Cover all areas of exposed skin, including face, hands, neck,

and ears. Use camouflage paint, charcoal, or mud to camouflage

yourself. Cover areas that stick out more and catch more light

(forehead, nose, cheekbones, chin, and ears) with a darker color.

Cover other areas, particularly recessed or shaded areas (around

the eyes and under the chin), with lighter colors. Be sure to use

an irregular pattern. Attach vegetation from the area or strips of

cloth of the proper color to clothing and equipment. If you use

vegetation, replace it as it wilts. As you move through an area, be

alert to the color changes and modify your camouflage colors as

necessary.

21-6. Figure 21-1 gives a general idea of how to apply camouflage

for various areas and climates. Use appropriate colors for your

surroundings. The blotches or slashes will help to simulate

texture.

Area

Method

Temperature deciduous forest

Blotches

Coniferous forest

Broad slash

Jungle

Broad slash

Desert

Slash

Arctic

Blotches

Grass or open area

Slash

Figure 21-1. Camouflage Methods for Specific Areas

21-2

SHINE

21-7. As skin gets oily, it becomes shiny. Equipment with worn-

off paint is also shiny. Even painted objects, if smooth, may shine.

Glass objects such as mirrors, glasses, binoculars, and telescopes

shine. You must cover these glass objects when not in use.

Anything that shines will automatically attract attention and will

give away your location.

21-8. Whenever possible, wash oily skin and reapply camouflage.

Skin oil will wash off camouflage, so reapply it frequently. If you

must wear glasses, camouflage them by applying a thin layer of

dust to the outside of the lenses. This layer of dust will reduce the

reflection of light. Cover shiny spots on equipment by painting,

covering with mud, or wrapping with cloth or tape. Pay particular

attention to covering boot eyelets, buckles on equipment, watches

and jewelry, zippers, and uniform insignia. Carry a signal mirror

in its designed pouch or in a pocket with the mirror portion facing

your body.

SHADOW

21-9. When hiding or traveling, stay in the deepest part of the

shadows. The outer edges of the shadows are lighter and the

deeper parts are darker. Remember, if you are in an area where

there is plenty of vegetation, keep as much vegetation between

you and a potential enemy as possible. This action will make it

very hard for the enemy to see you as the vegetation will partially

mask you from his view. Forcing an enemy to look through many

layers of masking vegetation will fatigue his eyes very quickly.

21-10. When traveling, especially in built-up areas at night, be

aware of where you cast your shadow. It may extend out around

the corner of a building and give away your position. Also, if you

are in a dark shadow and there is a light source to one side, an

enemy on the other side can see your silhouette against the light.

MOVEMENT

21-11. Movement, especially fast movement, attracts attention. If

possible, avoid movement in the presence of an enemy. If capture

appears imminent in your present location and you must move,

move away slowly, making as little noise as possible. By moving

slowly in a survival situation, you decrease the chance of

21-3

detection and conserve energy that you may need for long-term

survival or long-distance evasion.

21-12. When moving past obstacles, avoid going over them. If you

must climb over an obstacle, keep your body level with its top to

avoid silhouetting yourself. Do not silhouette yourself against the

skyline when crossing hills or ridges. When you are moving, you

will have difficulty detecting the movement of others. Stop

frequently, listen, and look around slowly to detect signs of hostile

movement.

NOISE

21-13. Noise attracts attention, especially if there is a sequence of

loud noises such as several snapping twigs. If possible, avoid

making any noise. Slow your pace as much as necessary to avoid

making noise when moving around or away from possible threats.

21-14. Use background noises to cover the noise of your

movement. Sounds of aircraft, trucks, generators, strong winds,

and people talking will cover some or all the sounds produced by

your movement. Rain will mask a lot of movement noise, but it

also reduces your ability to detect potential enemy noise.

SCENT

21-15. Whether hunting animals or avoiding the enemy, it is

always wise to camouflage the scent associated with humans.

Start by washing yourself and your clothes without using soap.

This washing method removes soap and body odors. Avoiding

strong smelling foods, such as garlic, helps reduce body odors. Do

not use tobacco products, candy, gum, or cosmetics.

21-16. You can use aromatic herbs or plants to wash yourself and

your clothing, to rub on your body and clothing, or to chew on to

camouflage your breath. Pine needles, mint, or any similar

aromatic plant will help camouflage your scent from both animals

and humans. Standing in smoke from a fire can help mask your

scent from animals. While animals are afraid of fresh smoke from

a fire, older smoke scents are normal smells after forest fires and

do not scare them.

21-17. While traveling, use your sense of smell to help you find or

avoid humans. Pay attention to smells associated with humans,

such as fire, cigarettes, gasoline, oil, soap, and food. Such smells

21-4

may alert you to their presence long before you can see or hear

them, depending on wind speed and direction. Note the wind’s

direction and, when possible, approach from or skirt around on

the downwind side when nearing humans or animals.

METHODS OF STALKING

21-18. Sometimes you need to move, undetected, to or from a location.

You need more than just camouflage to make these moves

successfully. The ability to stalk or move without making any sudden

quick movement or loud noise is essential to avoiding detection.

Always pick your route carefully to keep you concealed; use trenches,

slight rises in terrain, thick vegetation for concealment. Avoid lateral

movement to the observer unless you have good concealment,

otherwise stalk straight in toward the observer.

21-19. You must practice stalking if it is to be effective. Use the

following techniques when practicing.

UPRIGHT STALKING

21-20. Take steps about half your normal stride when stalking in

the upright position. Such strides help you to maintain your

balance. You should be able to stop at any point in that movement

and hold that position as long as necessary. Curl the toes up out

of the way when stepping down so the outside edge of the ball of

the foot touches the ground. Feel for sticks and twigs that may

snap when you place your weight on them. If you start to step on

one, lift your foot and move it. After making contact with the

outside edge of the ball of your foot, roll to the inside ball of your

foot, place your heel down, followed by your toes. Then gradually

shift your weight forward to the front foot. Lift the back foot to

about knee height and start the process over again.

21-21. Keep your hands and arms close to your body and avoid

waving them about or hitting vegetation. When moving in a

crouch, you gain extra support by placing your hands on your

knees. One step usually takes 1 minute to complete, but the time

it takes will depend on the situation.

CRAWLING

21-22. Crawl on your hands and knees when the vegetation is too

low to allow you to walk upright without being seen. Move one

21-5

limb at a time and be sure to set it down softly, feeling for

anything that may snap and make noise. Be careful that your

toes and heels do not catch on vegetation.

PRONE STAKING

21-23. To stalk in the prone position, you do a low, modified push-

up on your hands and toes, moving yourself forward slightly, and

then lowering yourself again slowly. Avoid dragging and scraping

along the ground as this makes excessive noise and leaves large

trails for trackers to follow.

ANIMAL STALKING

21-24. Before stalking an animal, select the best route. If the

animal is moving, you will need an intercepting route. Pick a

route that puts objects between you and the animal to conceal

your movement from it. By positioning yourself in this way, you

will be able to move faster, until you pass that object. Some

objects such as large rocks and trees may totally conceal you, and

others such as small bushes and grass may only partially conceal

you. Pick the route that offers the best concealment and requires

the least amount of effort.

21-25. Keep your eyes on the animal and stop when it looks your

way or turns its ears your way, especially if it suspects your

presence. As you get close, squint your eyes slightly to conceal

both the light-dark contrast of the whites of the eyes and any

shine from your eyes. Keep your mouth closed so that the animal

does not see the whiteness or shine of your teeth.

ANTITRACKING

21-26. Along with camouflage of your body, you need to

camouflage your movement from visual trackers. Antitracking

techniques should be used; countertracking techniques are of

little use to the evader, as they would pinpoint his location or

route. During movement this can be accomplished by using the

following methods:

• Restore vegetation—Use a stick to lift the vegetation you

crushed down during movement through it. This can slow

you down and it is hard to tell if you are being effective.

21-6

•

Brush out tracks—Use a tree branch to brush or pat out

tracks in open ground. This is effective in concealing the

number in the party, but leaves obvious signs in itself.

•

Use hard or stony ground—Using this type of terrain

minimizes the signs you leave slowing the visual tracker.

•

Make abrupt direction changes—Using this technique

combined with the use of hard or stony ground can be very

effective in slowing the visual tracker as it will be much

harder to detect the direction change.

•

Use well-used paths—Although the use of paths is not

advisable, there may be times you can use them to your

advantage. For example, if you have been in an area long

enough to surveil the path to determine the traffic

patterns, you could use the path prior to a farmer moving a

heard of cows down the path, eliminating your sign.

•

Use foot coverings—They can assist in aging or virtually

eliminating your signs. Examples include sandbags, rags,

old socks, or commercial foot coverings made from

imitation sheepskin (these seem to work the best).

•

Change footgear—Use this method in an area such as hard

or stony ground. Vary the tread pattern.

•

Use custom footgear—Militaries generally have a standard

issue footgear, although with the world economy, this is

changing. If you know that the area you are working in has

a standard issue footgear, you may want to acquire a pair

or have that tread pattern put on your boots.

•

Walk backwards—This can be useful at times but there

are pitfalls to avoid. Avoid turning your foot out. When you

look over your left shoulder your left foot tends to turn

outward and visa versa. Avoid dragging dirt backwards.

Try to place your footfalls so that the toe indention is

deeper than your heel indention to give the appearance of

moving forward.

•

Confuse the start point—Whatever the point on the ground

you start your evasion, try to confuse it by walking

numerous cloverleaf patterns out of and back into it before

you leave on your initial route (this can assist in delaying

dog trackers also).

21-7

• Use streams, lakes, waterways—This is a judgement call

on your part. Ask yourself: Is the stream moving in the

direction you need to go? Is it fast or slow moving water?

Will it put you that much farther ahead of the trackers?

(Note: You will leave more signs upon exiting the water.)

• Crossing roads or paths with the traffic pattern—When

crossing roads or paths try to cross with the direction of

travel, not perpendicular, this will assist in your tracks

blending into normal traffic patterns and making them

harder to follow.

• Careful placement of footfalls leaving little heel or toe

dig—Try to leave as little sign as possible. Last but not

least, always vary your techniques so as not to educate the

tracker as to what to look for if he loses the track!

ANTIDOG TRACKING

21-27. When trying to elude dog trackers always remember you

are trying to beat the handler not the dog! Whatever you do, it

should be done to either tire the handler or decrease the handler’s

confidence in his dog. Some techniques to use against dog tracker

teams are as follows:

• Open ground—Although this is a danger area, if the wind

is high it will blow the scent to vegetated areas; thus the

team will not be directly on your tracks and it will slow the

team’s progression.

• Thick terrain—Using a zigzag pattern of movement will

slow and tire the handler and possibly decrease the

handler’s confidence.

• Hard or stony ground—In high winds or high

temperatures these areas will dissipate your scent quicker,

increasing the chance of the dog losing the track.

• Crowded places—If the dog is not scent-specific trained,

and you move through an area where many other people

have recently been he may lose the track.

• Freshly plowed or fertilized fields—The dog may lose the

track in these areas due to the overpowering scent of fresh

dirt and human or animal manure used as fertilizer (do not

rely too much on this theory).

21-8

Chapter 22

Contact With People

Some of the best and most frequently given

advice, when dealing with the local population, is

for you to accept, respect, and adapt to their

ways. Thus, “When in Rome, do as the Romans

do.” This is excellent advice, but there are

several considerations involved in putting this

advice into practice.

CONTACT WITH LOCAL PEOPLE

22-1. You must give serious consideration to dealing with the

local people. Do they have a primitive culture? Are they farmers,

fishermen, friendly people, or enemy? In a survival situation,

“cross-cultural communication” can vary radically from area to

area and from people to people. It may mean interaction with

people of an extremely primitive culture or contact with people

who have a relatively modern culture. A culture is identified by

standards of behavior that its members consider proper and

acceptable but may or may not conform to your idea of what is

proper. No matter who these people are, you can expect they will

have laws, social and economic values, and political and religious

beliefs that may be radically different from yours. Before

deploying into your area of operations, study these different

cultural aspects. Prior study and preparation will help you make

or avoid contact if you have to deal with the local population.

22-2. People will be friendly, unfriendly, or they will choose to

ignore you. Their attitude may be unknown. If the people are

known to be friendly, try to keep them friendly through your

courtesy and respect for their religion, politics, social customs,

habits, and all other aspects of their culture. If the people are

known to be enemies or are unknowns, make every effort to avoid

any contact and leave no sign of your presence. A basic knowledge

of the daily habits of the local people will be essential in this

attempt. If, after careful observation, you determine that an

unknown people are friendly, you may contact them if you

absolutely need their help.

22-1

22-3. Usually, you have little to fear and much to gain from

cautious and respectful contact with local people of friendly or

neutral countries. If you become familiar with the local customs,

display common decency, and most important, show respect for

their customs, you should be able to avoid trouble and possibly

gain needed help. To make contact, wait until only one person is

near and, if possible, let that person make the initial approach.

Most people will be willing to help if you appear to be in need.

However, local political attitudes, instruction, or propaganda

efforts may change the attitudes of otherwise friendly people.

Conversely, in unfriendly countries, many people, especially in

remote areas, may feel animosity toward their politicians and

may be friendlier toward you.

22-4. The key to successful contact with local people is to be

friendly, courteous, and patient. Displaying fear, showing

weapons, and making sudden or threatening movements can

cause a local person to fear you. Such actions can prompt a hostile

response. When attempting a contact, smile as often as you can.

Many local people are shy and seem unapproachable, or they may

ignore you. Approach them slowly and do not rush your contact.

SURVIVAL BEHAVIOR

22-5. Use salt, tobacco, silver money, and similar items discreetly

when trading with local people. Paper money is well-known

worldwide. Do not overpay; it may lead to embarrassment and

even danger. Always treat people with respect. Do not bully them

or laugh at them.

22-6. Using sign language or acting out needs or questions can be

very effective. Many people are used to such language and

communicate using nonverbal sign language. Try to learn a few

words and phrases of the local language in and around your

potential area of operations. Trying to speak someone’s language

is one of the best ways to show respect for his culture. Since

English is widely used, some of the local people may understand a

few words of English.

22-7. Some areas may be taboo. They range from religious or

sacred places to diseased or danger areas. In some areas, certain

animals must not be killed. Learn the rules and follow them.

Watch and learn as much as possible. Such actions will help to

22-2

strengthen relations and provide new knowledge and skills that

may be very important later. Seek advice on local hazards and find

out from friendly people where the hostile people are. Always

remember that people frequently insist that other people are

hostile, simply because they do not understand different cultures

and distant people. The people they can usually trust are their

immediate neighbors—much the same as in our own neighborhood.

22-8. Frequently, local people, like ourselves, will suffer from

contagious diseases. Build a separate shelter, if possible, and avoid

physical contact without giving the impression of doing so. Personally

prepare your food and drink, if you can do so without giving offense.

Frequently, the local people will accept the use of

“personal or

religious custom” as an explanation for isolationist behavior.

22-9. Barter, or trading, is common in more primitive societies.

Hard coin is usually good, whether for its exchange value or as

jewelry or trinkets. In isolated areas, matches, tobacco, salt, razor

blades, empty containers, or cloth may be worth more than any

form of money.

22-10. Be very cautious when touching people. Many people

consider “touching” taboo and such actions may be dangerous.

Avoid sexual contact.

22-11. Hospitality among some people is such a strong cultural

trait that they may seriously reduce their own supplies to feed a

stranger. Accept what they offer and share it equally with all

present. Eat in the same way they eat and, most important, try to

eat all they offer.

22-12. If you make any promises, keep them. Respect personal

property and local customs and manners, even if they seem odd.

Make some kind of payment for food and supplies. Respect

privacy. Do not enter a house unless invited.

CHANGES TO POLITICAL ALLEGIANCE

22-13. In today’s world of fast-paced international politics,

political attitudes and commitments within nations are subject to

rapid change. The population of many countries, especially

politically hostile countries, must not be considered friendly just

because they do not demonstrate open hostility. Unless briefed to

the contrary, avoid all contact with such people.

22-3

Chapter 23

Survival In Man-Made Hazards

Nuclear, chemical, and biological (NBC) weapons

have become potential realities on any modern

battlespace. Recent experience in Afghanistan,

Cambodia, and other areas of conflict has proved

the use of chemical and biological weapons (such as

mycotoxins). The warfighting doctrine of the North

Atlantic Treaty Organization and former Warsaw

Pact nations addresses the use of both nuclear and

chemical weapons. The potential use of these

weapons intensifies the problems of survival

because of the serious dangers posed by either

radioactive fallout or contamination produced by

persistent biological or chemical agents.

You must use special precautions if you expect to

survive in these man-made hazards. If you are

subjected to any of the effects of nuclear, chemical,

or biological warfare, the survival procedures

recommended in this chapter may save your life.

This chapter presents some background

information on each type of hazard so you may

better understand the true nature of the hazard.

Awareness of the hazards, knowledge of this

chapter, and application of common sense can keep

you alive.

THE NUCLEAR ENVIRONMENT

23-1. Prepare yourself to survive in a nuclear environment. Make

sure you know what to expect and how to react to a nuclear

hazard.

EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

23-2. The effects of nuclear weapons are classified as either

initial or residual. Initial effects occur in the immediate area of

23-1

the explosion and are hazardous in the first minute after the

explosion. Residual effects can last for days or years and cause

death. The principal initial effects are blast and radiation.

Blast

23-3. Blast is the brief and rapid movement of air away from

the explosion’s center and the pressure accompanying this

movement. Strong winds accompany the blast. Blast hurls debris

and personnel, collapses lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses

structures and positions, and causes immediate death or injury

with its crushing effect.

Thermal Radiation

23-4. This effect is the heat and light radiation a nuclear

explosion’s fireball emits. Light radiation consists of both visible

light and ultraviolet and infrared light. Thermal radiation

produces extensive fires, skin burns, and flash blindness.

Nuclear Radiation

23-5. Nuclear radiation breaks down into two categories. The

effects can be initial radiation and residual radiation.

23-6. Initial nuclear radiation consists of intense gamma rays

and neutrons produced during the first minute after the

explosion. This radiation causes extensive damage to cells

throughout the body. Radiation damage may cause headaches,

nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and even death, depending on the

radiation dose received. The major problem in protecting yourself

against the initial radiation’s effects is that you may have

received a lethal or incapacitating dose before taking any

protective action. Personnel exposed to lethal amounts of initial

radiation may well have been killed or fatally injured by blast or

thermal radiation.

23-7. Residual radiation consists of all radiation produced after 1

minute from the explosion. It has more effect on you than initial

radiation. A discussion of residual radiation takes place in a

subsequent paragraph.

23-2

FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002) - page 12