FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002)

spray shield. There are two variations of the one-man raft; the

improved model incorporates an inflatable spray shield and floor

that provide additional insulation. The spray shield helps keep

you dry and warm in cold oceans and protects you from the sun in

the hot climates (Figure 16-11).

Figure 16-11. One-Man Raft With Spray Shield Inflated

Seven-Man Raft

16-30. Some multiplace aircraft carry the seven-man raft. It is a

component of the survival drop kit (Figure 16-12, page 16-16).

This raft may inflate upside down and require you to right the

raft before boarding. Always work from the bottle side to prevent

injury if the raft turns over. Facing into the wind, the wind

16-15

16-31. Use the boarding ramp if someone holds down the raft’s

opposite side. If you don’t have help, again work from the bottle

side with the wind at your back to help hold down the raft. Follow

the five As outlined in paragraph 16-22. Then grasp an oarlock

and boarding handle, kick your legs to get your body prone on the

water, and then kick and pull yourself into the raft. If you are

weak or injured, you may partially deflate the raft to make

boarding easier (Figure 16-14).

Figure 16-14. Method of Boarding Seven-Man Raft

16-32. Use the hand pump to keep the buoyancy chambers and

cross seat firm. Never overinflate the raft.

25-, 35-, and 46-Man Rafts

16-33. You may find 25-, 35-, or 46-man rafts in multiplace aircraft

(Figure 16-15, page 16-18). The 20-man raft has been discontinued.

The rafts are stowed in raft compartments on the outside of the

fuselage, usually on the wings, alongside the upper half of the port

(left) side of the aircraft. There will always be enough raft space to

accommodate all personnel on each type of aircraft. If the number

of personnel exceeds the maximum number of raft spaces,

additional rafts will be centerline-loaded and ratchet-strapped to

the cargo bay floor. Some may be automatically deployed from the

16-17

cockpit or from stations within the cargo area, usually near the

crew chief’s station, while others may need manual deployment. No

matter how the raft lands in the water, it is ready for boarding. A

lanyard connects the accessory kit to the raft and you retrieve the

kit by hand. You must manually inflate the center chamber with

the hand pump. Board the 25-, 35-, or 46-man raft from the

aircraft, if possible. If not, board in the following manner:

• Approach the lower boarding ramp, following the arrows

printed on the outside of the raft.

• Remove your life preserver and tether it to yourself so that

it trails behind you.

• Grasp the boarding handles and kick your legs to get your

body into a prone position on the water’s surface; then kick

and pull until you are inside the raft.

Figure 16-15. 25-Man Raft

16-18

16-34. An incompletely inflated raft will make boarding easier.

Approach the intersection of the raft and ramp, grasp the upper

boarding handle, and swing one leg onto the center of the ramp,

as in mounting a horse.

16-35. Immediately tighten the equalizer clamp upon entering the

raft to prevent deflating the entire raft in case of a puncture

(Figure 16-16).

16-36. Use the pump to keep these rafts’ chambers and center

ring firm. They should be well rounded but not overly tight. The

center rings keep the center of the floor afloat, and give raft

occupants something to brace their feet against to prevent all

occupants from sliding toward the center.

Figure 16-16. Immediate Action—Multiplace Raft

16-19

SAILING RAFTS

16-37. Rafts do not have keels, therefore, you can’t sail them into

the wind. However, anyone can sail a raft downwind. You can

successfully sail the seven-man raft

10 degrees off from the

direction of the wind. Do not try to sail the raft unless land is

near. If you decide to sail and the wind is blowing toward a

desired destination, fully inflate the raft, sit high, take in the sea

anchor, rig a sail, and use an oar as a rudder.

16-38. In the seven-man raft, erect a square sail in the bow

using the oars and their extensions as the mast and crossbar

(Figure 16-17, page 16-21). You may use a waterproof tarpaulin

or parachute material for the sail. If the raft has no regular mast

socket and step, erect the mast by tying it securely to the front

cross seat using braces. Pad the bottom of the mast to prevent it

from chafing or punching a hole through the floor, whether or not

there is a socket. The heel of a shoe, with the toe wedged under

the seat, makes a good improvised mast step. Do not secure the

corners of the lower edge of the sail. Hold the lines attached to the

corners with your hands so that a gust of wind will not rip the

sail, break the mast, or capsize the raft.

16-39. Take every precaution to prevent the raft from turning

over. In rough weather, keep the sea anchor away from the bow.

Have the passengers sit low in the raft, with their weight

distributed to hold the upwind side down. To prevent falling out,

they should also avoid sitting on the sides of the raft or standing

up. Avoid sudden movements without warning the other

passengers. When the sea anchor is not in use, tie it to the raft

and stow it in such a manner that it will hold immediately if the

raft capsizes.

WATER

16-40. Water is your most important need. With it alone, you can

live for ten days or longer, depending on your will to live. When

drinking water, moisten your lips, tongue, and throat before

swallowing.

16-20

air; dampen your clothes during the hottest part of the day. Do

not exert yourself. Relax and sleep when possible. Fix your daily

water ration after considering the amount of water you have, the

output of solar stills and desalting kit, and the number and

physical condition of your party.

16-42. If you don’t have water, don’t eat. If your water ration is two

liters or more per day, eat any part of your ration or any additional

food that you may catch, such as birds, fish, shrimp. The life raft’s

motion and your anxiety may cause nausea. If you eat when

nauseated, you may lose your food immediately. If nauseated, rest

and relax as much as you can, and take only water.

16-43. To reduce your loss of water through perspiration, soak

your clothes in the sea and wring them out before putting them

on again. Don’t overdo this during hot days when no canopy or

sun shield is available. This is a trade-off between cooling and the

saltwater boils, sores, and rashes that will result. Be careful not

to get the bottom of the raft wet.

16-44. Watch the clouds and be ready for any chance of showers.

Keep the tarpaulin handy for catching water. If it is encrusted

with dried salt, wash it in seawater. Normally, a small amount of

seawater mixed with rain will hardly be noticeable and will not

cause any physical reaction. In rough seas you cannot get

uncontaminated fresh water.

16-45. At night, secure the tarpaulin like a sunshade, and turn up

its edges to collect dew. It is also possible to collect dew along the

sides of the raft using a sponge or cloth. When it rains, drink as

much as you can hold.

Manual Reverse Osmosis Desalinator

16-46. Most rafts today are equipped with a manual reverse

osmosis desalinator (MROD). The MROD is a very highly efficient

water purifier designed to remove salt particles from seawater,

thereby making seawater potable. The two most common models

are the Survivor 35 and the Survivor 06, which make 35 and 6

gallons of potable water in a 24-hour period if used continuously.

Water procurement at sea is a 24-hour-a-day job. The MROD’s

life cycle is up to 50,000 gallons of water. The MROD has a 10-

year shelf life before it must be repacked by the manufacturer.

16-22

To operate the MROD, place both the intake (larger dual hose) and

the potable water supply hose into the water. Begin a 2-second

cycle of pumping the handle—one second up, one second down.

A pressure indicator will protrude from the pump housing to show

that the proper flow is being maintained. An orange band will be

visible when the correct rhythm is maintained. Purge the

antimicrobial packing agent from the filter medium for 2 minutes.

Then begin to collect potable water.

NOTE: Ensure that the water is free from any petroleum residue

(jet fuel, hydraulic fluid, or oil) before using an MROD. The filter

medium is very sensitive to petroleum, oils, and lubricants, and

will render the filter useless, destroying your water production

capability.

Solar Still

16-47. When solar stills are available, read the instructions and

set them up immediately. Use as many stills as possible,

depending on the number of men in the raft and the amount of

sunlight available. Secure solar stills to the raft with care. Solar

stills only work on flat, calm seas.

Desalting Kits

16-48. When desalting kits are available in addition to solar stills,

use them only for immediate water needs or during long overcast

periods when you cannot use solar stills. In any event, keep

desalting kits and emergency water stores for periods when you

cannot use solar stills or catch rainwater.

Water From Fish

16-49. Drink the aqueous fluid found along the spine and in the

eyes of large fish. Carefully cut the fish in half to get the fluid

along the spine and suck the eye. If you are so short of water that

you need to do this, then do not drink any of the other body

fluids. These other fluids are rich in protein and fat and will use

up more of your reserve water in digestion than they supply.

Sea Ice

16-50. In arctic waters, use old sea ice for water. This ice is

bluish, has rounded corners, and splinters easily. It is nearly free

16-23

of salt. New ice is gray, milky, hard, and salty. Water from

icebergs is fresh, but icebergs are dangerous to approach. Use

them as a source of water only in emergencies.

16-51. As in any survival situation there are dangers when you

are substituting or compromising necessities. Even though water

is one of your basic needs, keep in mind the following tips.

DO NOT—

• Drink seawater.

• Drink urine.

• Drink alcohol.

• Smoke.

• Eat, unless water is available.

16-52. Sleep and rest are the best ways of enduring periods of

reduced water and food intake. However, make sure that you have

enough shade when napping during the day. If the sea is rough, tie

yourself to the raft, close any cover, and ride out the storm as best

you can. Relax is the key word—at least try to relax.

FOOD PROCUREMENT

16-53. In the open sea, fish will be the main food source. There

are some poisonous and dangerous ocean fish, but, in general,

when out of sight of land, fish are safe to eat. Nearer the shore

there are fish that are both dangerous and poisonous to eat.

There are some fish, such as the red snapper and barracuda, that

are normally edible but poisonous when taken from the waters of

atolls and reefs. Flying fish will even jump into your raft!

Fish

16-54. When fishing, do not handle the fishing line with bare

hands and never wrap it around your hands or tie it to a life raft.

The salt that adheres to it can make it a sharp cutting edge, an

edge dangerous both to the raft and your hands. Wear gloves, if

they are available, or use a cloth to handle fish and to avoid

injury from sharp fins and gill covers.

16-55. In warm regions, gut and bleed fish immediately after

catching them. Cut fish that you do not eat immediately into thin,

narrow strips and hang them to dry. A well-dried fish stays edible

16-24

for several days. Fish not cleaned and dried may spoil in half a

day. Fish with dark meat are very prone to decomposition. If you

do not eat them all immediately, do not eat any of the leftovers.

Use the leftovers for bait.

16-56. Never eat fish that have pale, shiny gills, sunken eyes,

flabby skin and flesh, or an unpleasant odor. Good fish show the

opposite characteristics. Sea fish have a saltwater or clean fishy

odor. Do not confuse eels with sea snakes that have an obviously

scaly body and strongly compressed, paddle-shaped tail. Both eels

and sea snakes are edible, but you must handle the latter with

care because of their poisonous bites. The heart, blood, intestinal

wall, and liver of most fish are edible. Cook the intestines. Also

edible are the partly digested smaller fish that you may find in

the stomachs of large fish. In addition, sea turtles are edible.

16-57. Shark meat is a good source of food whether raw, dried, or

cooked. Shark meat spoils very rapidly due to the high

concentration of urea in the blood; therefore, bleed it immediately

and soak it in several changes of water. People prefer some shark

species over others. Consider them all edible except the Greenland

shark, whose flesh contains high quantities of vitamin A. Do not

eat the livers, due to high vitamin A content.

Fishing Aids

16-58. The accessory kit contains a very good fishing kit that

should meet your needs just about anywhere around the world.

You can also use different materials to make fishing aids as

described in the following paragraphs:

• Fishing line. Use pieces of tarpaulin or canvas. Unravel

the threads and tie them together in short lengths in

groups of three or more threads. Shoelaces and parachute

suspension line also work well.

• Fish hooks. No one at sea should be without fishing

equipment, but if you are, improvise hooks as shown in

Chapter 8.

• Fish lures. You can fashion lures by attaching a double

hook to any shiny piece of metal.

• Grapple. Use grapples to hook seaweed. You may shake

crabs, shrimp, or small fish out of the seaweed.

16-25

These you may eat or use for bait. You may eat seaweed

itself, but only when you have plenty of drinking water.

Improvise grapples from wood. Use a heavy piece of wood

as the main shaft, and lash three smaller pieces to the

shaft as grapples.

• Bait. You can use small fish as bait for larger ones. Scoop

the small fish up with a net. If you don’t have a net, make

one from cloth of some type. Hold the net under the water

and scoop upward. Use all the guts from birds and fish for

bait. When using bait, try to keep it moving in the water to

give it the appearance of being alive.

Helpful Fishing Hints

16-59. Your fishing should be successful if you remember the

following important hints:

• Be extremely careful with fish that have teeth and spines.

• Cut a large fish loose rather than risk capsizing the raft.

Try to catch small rather than large fish.

• Do not puncture your raft with hooks or other sharp

instruments.

• Do not fish when large sharks are in the area.

• Watch for schools of fish; try to move close to these schools.

• Fish at night using a light. The light attracts fish.

• In the daytime, shade attracts some fish. You may find

them under your raft.

• Improvise a spear by tying a knife to an oar blade. This

spear can help you catch larger fish, but you must get

them into the raft quickly or they will slip off the blade.

Also, tie the knife very securely or you may lose it.

• Always take care of your fishing equipment. Dry your

fishing lines, clean and sharpen the hooks, and do not

allow the hooks to stick into the fishing lines.

Birds

16-60. As stated in Chapter 8, all sea birds are edible. Eat any

birds you can catch. Sometimes birds may land on your raft, but

usually they are cautious. You may be able to attract some birds

16-26

by towing a bright piece of metal behind the raft. This will bring

the bird within shooting range, provided you have a firearm.

16-61. If a bird lands within your reach, you may be able to catch

it. If the birds do not land close enough or land on the other end of

the raft, you may be able to catch them with a bird noose. Bait the

center of the noose and wait for the bird to land. When the bird’s

feet are in the center of the noose, pull it tight.

16-62. Use all parts of the bird. Use the feathers for insulation,

the entrails and feet for bait, and so on. Use your imagination.

MEDICAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SEA SURVIVAL

16-63. At sea, you may become seasick, get saltwater sores, or

face some of the same medical problems that occur on land, such

as dehydration, hypothermia, or sunburn. These problems can

become critical if left untreated.

Seasickness

16-64. Seasickness is the nausea and vomiting caused by the

motion of the raft. It can result in—

• Extreme fluid loss and exhaustion.

• Loss of the will to survive.

• Others becoming seasick.

• Attraction of sharks to the raft.

• Unclean conditions.

16-65. To treat seasickness—

• Wash both the patient and the raft to remove the sight and

odor of vomit.

• Keep the patient from eating food until his nausea is gone.

• Have the patient lie down and rest.

• Give the patient seasickness pills if available. If the

patient is unable to take the pills orally, insert them

rectally for absorption by the body. Do not take seasickness

pills if you are already seasick. They tend to make the

patient even sicker; always take seasickness pills before

the symptoms appear.

16-27

NOTE: Some people at sea have said that erecting a canopy or

using the horizon or a cloud as a focal point helped overcome

seasickness. Others have said that swimming alongside the raft for

short periods helped, but extreme care must be taken if swimming.

Saltwater Sores

16-66. These sores result from a break in skin exposed to

saltwater for an extended period. They may also occur at the

areas that your clothing binds you—your waist, ankles, or wrist.

The sores may form scabs and pus. Do not open or drain the

sores. Flush them with freshwater, if available, and allow to dry.

Apply an antiseptic, if available.

Immersion Rot, Frostbite, and Hypothermia

16-67. These problems are similar to those encountered in cold

weather environments. Symptoms and treatment are the same as

covered in Chapter 15.

Blindness or Headache

16-68. If flame, smoke, or other contaminants get in the eyes,

flush them immediately with saltwater, then with freshwater, if

available. Apply ointment, if available. Bandage both eyes 18 to

24 hours, or longer if damage is severe. If the glare from the sky

and water causes your eyes to become bloodshot and inflamed,

bandage them lightly. Try to prevent this problem by wearing

sunglasses. Improvise sunglasses if necessary.

Constipation

16-69. This condition is a common problem on a raft. Do not take

a laxative, as this will cause further dehydration. Exercise as

much as possible and drink an adequate amount of water,

if available.

Difficult Urination

16-70. This problem is not unusual and is due mainly to

dehydration. It is best not to treat it, as it could cause further

dehydration.

16-28

Sunburn

16-71. Sunburn is a serious problem in sea survival. Try to

prevent sunburn by staying in the shade and keeping your head

and skin covered. Use cream or lip salve from your first-aid kit.

Remember, reflection from the water also causes sunburn in

places where the sun usually doesn’t burn you—tender skin

under the earlobes, eyebrows, nose, chin, and underarms.

SHARKS

16-72. Whether you are in the water or in a boat or raft, you may

see many types of sea life around you. Some may be more

dangerous than others. Generally, sharks are the greatest danger

to you. Other animals, such as whales, porpoises, and stingrays,

may look dangerous, but really pose little threat in the open sea.

16-73. Of the many hundreds of shark species, only about 20

species are known to attack man. The most dangerous are the

great white shark, the hammerhead, the mako, and the tiger

shark. Other sharks known to attack man include the gray, blue,

lemon, sand, nurse, bull, and oceanic white-tip sharks. Consider

any shark longer than 1 meter (3 feet) dangerous.

16-74. There are sharks in all oceans and seas of the world. While

many live and feed in the depths of the sea, others hunt near the

surface. The sharks living near the surface are the ones you will

most likely see. Their dorsal fins frequently project above the

water. Sharks in the tropical and subtropical seas are far more

aggressive than those in temperate waters.

16-75. All sharks are basically eating machines. Their normal

diet is live animals of any type, and they will strike at injured or

helpless animals. Sight, smell, or sound may guide them to their

prey. Sharks have an acute sense of smell and the smell of blood

in the water excites them. They are also very sensitive to any

abnormal vibrations in the water. The struggles of a wounded

animal or swimmer, underwater explosions, or even a fish

struggling on a fishline will attract a shark.

16-76. Sharks can bite from almost any position; they do not have

to turn on their side to bite. The jaws of some of the larger sharks

are so far forward that they can bite floating objects easily

without twisting to the side.

16-29

16-77. Sharks may hunt alone, but most reports of attacks cite

more than one shark present. The smaller sharks tend to travel

in schools and attack in mass. Whenever one of the sharks finds a

victim, the other sharks will quickly join it. Sharks will eat a

wounded shark as quickly as their prey.

16-78. Sharks feed at all hours of the day and night. Most

reported shark contacts and attacks were during daylight, and

many of these have been in the late afternoon. Some of the

measures that you can take to protect yourself against sharks

when you are in the water are—

• Stay with other swimmers. A group can maintain a 360-

degree watch. A group can either frighten or fight off

sharks better than one man.

• Always watch for sharks. Keep all your clothing on, to

include your shoes. Historically, sharks have attacked the

unclothed men in groups first, mainly in the feet. Clothing

also protects against abrasions should the shark brush

against you.

• Avoid urinating. If you must, only do so in small amounts.

Let it dissipate between discharges. If you must defecate,

do so in small amounts and throw it as far away from you

as possible. Do the same if you must vomit.

16-79. If a shark attack is imminent while you are in the water,

splash and yell just enough to keep the shark at bay. Sometimes

yelling underwater or slapping the water repeatedly will scare

the shark away. Conserve your strength for fighting in case the

shark attacks.

16-80. If attacked, kick and strike the shark. Hit the shark on the

gills or eyes if possible. If you hit the shark on the nose, you may

injure your hand if it glances off and hits its teeth.

16-81. When you are in a raft and see sharks—

• Do not fish. If you have hooked a fish, let it go. Do not

clean fish in the water.

• Do not throw garbage overboard.

• Do not let your arms, legs, or equipment hang in the water.

16-30

• Keep quiet and do not move around.

• Bury all dead as soon as possible. If there are many sharks

in the area, conduct the burial at night.

16-82. When you are in a raft and a shark attack is imminent, hit

the shark with anything you have, except your hands. You will do

more damage to your hands than the shark. If you strike with an

oar, be careful not to lose or break it.

DETECTING LAND

16-83. You should watch carefully for any signs of land. There are

many indicators that land is near.

16-84. A fixed cumulus cloud in a clear sky or in a sky where all

other clouds are moving often hovers over or slightly downwind

from an island.

16-85. In the tropics, the reflection of sunlight from shallow

lagoons or shelves of coral reefs often causes a greenish tint in

the sky.

16-86. In the arctic, light-colored reflections on clouds often

indicate ice fields or snow-covered land. These reflections are

quite different from the dark gray ones caused by open water.

16-87. Deep water is dark green or dark blue. Lighter color

indicates shallow water, which may mean land is near.

16-88. At night, or in fog, mist, or rain, you may detect land by

odors and sounds. The musty odor of mangrove swamps and mud

flats carry a long way. You hear the roar of surf long before you

see the surf. The continued cries of seabirds coming from one

direction indicate their roosting place on nearby land.

16-89. There usually are more birds near land than over the open

sea. The direction from which flocks fly at dawn and to which

they fly at dusk may indicate the direction of land. During the

day, birds are searching for food and the direction of flight has no

significance.

16-90. Mirages occur at any latitude, but they are more likely in

the tropics, especially during the middle of the day. Be careful not

to mistake a mirage for nearby land. A mirage disappears or its

16-31

appearance and elevation change when viewed from slightly

different heights.

16-91. You may be able to detect land by the pattern of the waves

(refracted) as they approach land (Figure 16-18). By traveling

with the waves and parallel to the slightly turbulent area marked

“X” on the illustration, you should reach land.

Figure 16-18. Wave Patterns About an Island

RAFTING OR BEACHING TECHNIQUES

16-92. Once you have found land, you must get ashore safely. To

raft ashore, you can usually use the one-man raft without danger.

However, going ashore in a strong surf is dangerous. Take your

time. Select your landing point carefully. Try not to land when

the sun is low and straight in front of you. Try to land on the lee

side of an island or on a point of land jutting out into the water.

Keep your eyes open for gaps in the surf line, and head for them.

Avoid coral reefs and rocky cliffs. There are no coral reefs near

the mouths of freshwater streams. Avoid rip currents or strong

tidal currents that may carry you far out to sea. Either signal

ashore for help or sail around and look for a sloping beach where

the surf is gentle.

16-93. If you have to go through the surf to reach shore, take

down the mast. Keep your clothes and shoes on to avoid severe

16-32

cuts. Adjust and inflate your life vest. Trail the sea anchor over

the stem using as much line as you have. Use the oars or paddles

and constantly adjust the sea anchor to keep a strain on the

anchor line. These actions will keep the raft pointed toward shore

and prevent the sea from throwing the stern around and

capsizing you. Use the oars or paddles to help ride in on the

seaward side of a large wave.

16-94. The surf may be irregular and velocity may vary, so modify

your procedure as conditions demand. A good method of getting

through the surf is to have half the men sit on one side of the raft,

half on the other, facing away from each other. When a heavy sea

bears down, half should row (pull) toward the sea until the crest

passes; then the other half should row (pull) toward the shore

until the next heavy sea comes along.

16-95. Against a strong wind and heavy surf, the raft must have

all possible speed to pass rapidly through the oncoming crest to

avoid being turned broadside or thrown end over end. If possible,

avoid meeting a large wave at the moment it breaks.

16-96. If in a medium surf with no wind or offshore wind, keep

the raft from passing over a wave so rapidly that it drops

suddenly after topping the crest. If the raft turns over in the surf,

try to grab hold of it and ride it in.

16-97. As the raft nears the beach, ride in on the crest of a large

wave. Paddle or row hard and ride in to the beach as far as you

can. Do not jump out of the raft until it has grounded, then

quickly get out and beach it.

16-98. If you have a choice, do not land at night. If you have

reason to believe that people live on the shore, lay away from the

beach, signal, and wait for the inhabitants to come out and bring

you in.

16-99. If you encounter sea ice, land only on large, stable floes.

Avoid icebergs that may capsize and small floes or those obviously

disintegrating. Use oars and hands to keep the raft from rubbing

on the edge of the ice. Take the raft out of the water and store it

well back from the floe’s edge. You may be able to use it for

shelter. Keep the raft inflated and ready for use. Any floe may

break up without warning.

16-33

SWIMMING ASHORE

16-100. If rafting ashore is not possible and you have to swim,

wear your shoes and at least one thickness of clothing. Use the

sidestroke or breaststroke to conserve strength.

16-101. If the surf is moderate, ride in on the back of a small

wave by swimming forward with it. Dive to a shallow depth to

end the ride just before the wave breaks.

16-102. In high surf, swim toward shore in the trough between

waves. When the seaward wave approaches, face it and

submerge. After it passes, work toward shore in the next trough.

If caught in the undertow of a large wave, push off the bottom or

swim to the surface and proceed toward shore as above.

16-103. If you must land on a rocky shore, look for a place where

the waves rush up onto the rocks. Avoid places where the waves

explode with a high, white spray. Swim slowly when making your

approach. You will need your strength to hold on to the rocks. You

should be fully clothed and wear shoes to reduce injury.

16-104. After selecting your landing point, advance behind a

large wave into the breakers. Face toward shore and take a

sitting position with your feet in front, 60 to 90 centimeters (2 or

3 feet) lower than your head. This position will let your feet

absorb the shock when you land or strike submerged boulders or

reefs. If you do not reach shore behind the wave you picked, swim

with your hands only. As the next wave approaches, take a sitting

position with your feet forward. Repeat the procedure until you

land.

16-105. Water is quieter in the lee of a heavy growth of seaweed.

Take advantage of such growth. Do not swim through the

seaweed; crawl over the top by grasping the vegetation with

overhand movements.

16-106. Cross a rocky or coral reef as you would land on a rocky

shore. Keep your feet close together and your knees slightly bent

in a relaxed sitting posture to cushion the blows against the coral.

PICKUP OR RESCUE

16-34

16-107. On sighting rescue craft approaching for pickup (boat,

ship, conventional aircraft, or helicopter), quickly clear any lines

(fishing lines, desalting kit lines) or other gear that could cause

entanglement during rescue. Secure all loose items in the raft.

Take down canopies and sails to ensure a safer pickup. After

securing all items, put on your helmet, if available. Fully inflate

your life preserver. Remain in the raft, unless otherwise

instructed, and remove all equipment except the preservers. If

possible, you will receive help from rescue personnel lowered into

the water. Remember, follow all instructions given by the rescue

personnel.

16-108. If the helicopter recovery is unassisted, do the following

before pickup:

• Secure all the loose equipment in the raft, accessory bag,

or in pockets.

• Deploy the sea anchor, stability bags, and accessory bag.

• Partially deflate the raft and fill it with water.

• Unsnap the survival kit container from the parachute

harness.

• Grasp the raft handhold and roll out of the raft.

• Allow the recovery device or the cable to ground out on the

water’s surface.

• Maintain the handhold until the recovery device is in your

other hand.

• Mount the recovery device, avoiding entanglement with

the raft.

• Signal the hoist operator for pickup by placing one arm

straight out to the side with your thumb up while you hold

on with the other. Vigorously splash the water and then

raise your arm in the “thumbs up” signal. Once recovered,

DO NOT reach for the helicopter or crewman to try to

assist him. Allow the aircrew personnel to pull you into the

aircraft by themselves.

SEASHORES

16-35

16-109. Search planes or ships do not always spot a drifting raft

or swimmer. You may have to land along the coast before being

rescued. Surviving along the seashore is different from open sea

survival. Food and water are more abundant and shelter is

obviously easier to locate and construct.

16-110. If you are in friendly territory and decide to travel, it is

better to move along the coast than to go inland. Do not leave the

coast except to avoid obstacles (swamps and cliffs) or unless you

find a trail that you know leads to human habitation.

16-111. In time of war, remember that the enemy patrols most

coastlines. These patrols may cause problems for you if you land

on a hostile shore. You will have extremely limited travel options

in this situation. Avoid all contact with other humans and make

every effort to cover all tracks you leave on the shore.

SPECIAL HEALTH HAZARDS

16-112. Surviving on the seashore certainly can provide a greater

abundance of your basic needs, but hazards also exist. Coral,

poisonous and aggressive fish, crocodiles, sea urchins, sea biscuits,

sponges, anemones, tides, and undertow can pose special health

hazards that you should be aware of and know how to handle.

Coral

16-113. Coral, dead or alive, can inflict painful cuts. There are

hundreds of water hazards that can cause deep puncture wounds,

severe bleeding, and the danger of infection. Clean all coral cuts

thoroughly. Do not use iodine to disinfect any coral cuts. Some coral

polyps feed on iodine and may grow inside your flesh if you use iodine.

Poisonous Fish

16-114. Many reef fish have toxic flesh. For some species, the

flesh is always poisonous, for other species, only at certain times

of the year. The poisons are present in all parts of the fish, but

especially in the liver, intestines, and eggs. This is due to their

ingesting of a poisonous bacterial that grows only on coral reefs.

This bacteria is toxic to humans.

16-115. Fish toxins are water soluble; no amount of cooking will

neutralize them. They are tasteless, therefore, the standard

edibility tests are useless. Birds are least susceptible to the

16-36

poisons. Therefore, do not think that because a bird can eat a fish,

it is a safe species for you to eat.

16-116. The toxins will produce a numbness of the lips, tongue,

toes, and tips of the fingers, severe itching, and a clear reversal of

temperature sensations. Cold items appear hot and hot items

cold. There will probably also be nausea, vomiting, loss of speech,

dizziness, and a paralysis that eventually brings death.

16-117. In addition to fish with poisonous flesh, there are those

that are dangerous to touch. Many stingrays have a poisonous

barb in their tail. There are also species that can deliver an

electric shock. Some reef fish, such as stonefish and toadfish,

have venomous spines that can cause very painful although

seldom fatal injuries. The venom from these spines causes a

burning sensation or even an agonizing pain that is out of

proportion to the apparent severity of the wound. A jellyfish,

while not usually fatal, can inflict a very painful sting if it touches

you with its tentacles. See Chapter 11 and Appendix F for details

on particularly dangerous fish of the sea and seashore.

Aggressive Fish

16-118. You should also avoid some ferocious fish. The bold and

inquisitive barracuda has attacked men wearing shiny objects.

It may charge lights or shiny objects at night. The sea bass, which

can grow to 1.7 meters (6 feet), is another fish to avoid. The

moray eel, which has many sharp teeth and grows to 1.5 meters

(5 feet), can also be aggressive if disturbed.

Sea Snakes

16-119. Sea snakes are venomous and sometimes found in mid

ocean. They are unlikely to bite unless provoked. Avoid them.

Crocodiles

16-120. Crocodiles inhabit tropical saltwater bays and mangrove-

bordered estuaries and range up to 65 kilometers (39 miles) into

the open sea. Few remain near inhabited areas. You commonly

find crocodiles in the remote areas of the East Indies and

Southeast Asia. Consider specimens over 1 meter (3 feet) long

dangerous, especially females guarding their nests. Crocodile

meat is an excellent source of food when available.

16-37

Sea Urchins, Sea Biscuits, Sponges, and Anemones

16-121. These animals can cause extreme, though seldom fatal,

pain. Usually found in tropical shallow water near coral

formations, sea urchins resemble small, round porcupines. If

stepped on, they slip fine needles of lime or silica into the skin,

where they break off and fester. If possible, remove the spines

and treat the injury for infection. The other animals mentioned

inflict injury similarly.

Tides and Undertow

16-122. If caught in a large wave’s undertow, push off the bottom

or swim to the surface and proceed shoreward in a trough

between waves. Do not fight against the pull of the undertow.

Swim with it or perpendicular to it until it loses strength, then

swim for shore.

FOOD

16-123. Obtaining food along a seashore should not present a

problem. There are many types of seaweed and other plants you

can easily find and eat. See Chapter 9 and Appendix B for a

discussion of these plants. There is also a great variety of animal

life that can supply your need for food in this type of survival

situation.

Mollusks

16-124. Mussels, limpets, clams, sea snails, octopuses, squids,

and sea slugs are all edible. Shellfish will usually supply most of

the protein eaten by coastal survivors. Avoid the blue-ringed

octopus and cone shells (described in Chapter 11 and Appendix

F). Also, beware of “red tides” that make mollusks poisonous.

Apply the edibility test on each species before eating.

Worms

16-125. Coastal worms are generally edible, but it is better to use

them for fish bait. Avoid bristle worms that look like fuzzy

caterpillars. Also, avoid tubeworms that have sharp-edged tubes.

Arrow worms, alias amphioxus, are not true worms. You find

them in the sand. They are excellent either fresh or dried.

16-38

Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles

16-126. These animals are seldom dangerous to man and are an

excellent food source. The pincers of larger crabs or lobsters can

crush a man’s finger. Many species have spines on their shells,

making it preferable to wear gloves when catching them.

Barnacles can cause scrapes or cuts and are difficult to detach

from their anchor, but the larger species are an excellent food

source.

Sea Urchins

16-127. These are common and can cause painful injuries when

stepped on or touched. They are also a good source of food. Handle

them with gloves and remove all spines.

Sea Cucumbers

16-128. This animal is an important food source in the Indo-

Pacific regions. Use them whole after evisceration or remove the

five muscular strips that run the length of its body. Eat them

smoked, pickled, or cooked.

16-39

Chapter 17

Expedient Water Crossings

In a survival situation, you may have to cross a

water obstacle. It may be in the form of a river, a

stream, a lake, a bog, quicksand, quagmire, or

muskeg. Even in the desert, flash floods occur,

making streams an obstacle. Whatever the

obstacle, you need to know how to cross it safely.

RIVERS AND STREAMS

17-1. You can apply almost every description to rivers and

streams. They may be shallow or deep, slow or fast moving,

narrow or wide. Before you try to cross a river or stream, develop

a good plan.

17-2. Your first step is to look for a high place from which you can

get a good view of the river or stream. From this place, you can

look for a place to cross. If there is no high place, climb a tree.

Good crossing locations include—

• A level stretch where it breaks into several channels. Two

or three narrow channels are usually easier to cross than a

wide river.

• A shallow bank or sandbar. If possible, select a point

upstream from the bank or sandbar so that the current

will carry you to it if you lose your footing.

• A course across the river that leads downstream so that

you will cross the current at about a 45-degree angle.

17-3. The following areas possess potential hazards; avoid them,

if possible:

• Obstacles on the opposite side of the river that might

hinder your travel. Try to select the spot from which travel

will be the safest and easiest.

• A ledge of rocks that crosses the river. This often indicates

dangerous rapids or canyons.

17-1

• A deep or rapid waterfall or a deep channel. Never try to

ford a stream directly above or even close to such hazards.

• Rocky places that could cause you to sustain serious

injuries from slipping or falling. Usually, submerged rocks

are very slick, making balance extremely difficult. An

occasional rock that breaks the current, however, may help

you.

• An estuary of a river because it is normally wide, has

strong currents, and is subject to tides. These tides can

influence some rivers many kilometers from their mouths.

Go back upstream to an easier crossing site.

• Eddies, which can produce a powerful backward pull

downstream of the obstruction causing the eddy and pull

you under the surface.

17-4. The depth of a fordable river or stream is no deterrent if you

can keep your footing. In fact, deep water sometimes runs more

slowly and is therefore safer than fast-moving shallow water. You

can always dry your clothes later, or if necessary, you can make a

raft to carry your clothing and equipment across the river.

17-5. You must not try to swim or wade across a stream or river

when the water is at very low temperatures. This swim could be

fatal. Try to make a raft of some type. Wade across if you can get

only your feet wet. Dry them vigorously as soon as you reach the

other bank.

RAPIDS

17-6. If necessary, you can safely cross a deep, swift river or rapids.

To swim across a deep, swift river, swim with the current, never

fight it. Try to keep your body horizontal to the water. This will

reduce the danger of being pulled under.

17-7. In fast, shallow rapids, lie on your back, feet pointing

downstream, finning your hands alongside your hips. This action

will increase buoyancy and help you steer away from obstacles.

Keep your feet up to avoid getting them bruised or caught by rocks.

17-8. In deep rapids, lie on your stomach, head downstream,

angling toward the shore whenever you can. Watch for obstacles

17-2

and be careful of backwater eddies and converging currents, as

they often contain dangerous swirls. Converging currents occur

where new watercourses enter the river or where water has been

diverted around large obstacles such as small islands.

17-9. To ford a swift, treacherous stream, apply the following steps:

•

Remove your pants and shirt to lessen the water’s pull on

you. Keep your footgear on to protect your feet and ankles

from rocks. It will also provide you with firmer footing.

•

Tie your pants and other articles to the top of your

rucksack or in a bundle, if you have no pack. This way, if

you have to release your equipment, all your articles will

be together. It is easier to find one large pack than to find

several small items.

•

Carry your pack well up on your shoulders and be sure you

can easily remove it, if necessary. Not being able to get a

pack off quickly enough can drag even the strongest

swimmers under.

•

Find a strong pole about 7.5 centimeters (3 inches) in

diameter and 2.1 to 2.4 meters (7 to 8 feet) long to help you

ford the stream. Grasp the pole and plant it firmly on your

upstream side to break the current. Plant your feet firmly

with each step, and move the pole forward a little

downstream from its previous position, but still upstream

from you. With your next step, place your foot below the

pole. Keep the pole well slanted so that the force of the

current keeps the pole against your shoulder (Figure 17-1).

•

Cross the stream so that you will cross the downstream

current at a 45-degree angle.

17-3

17-10. Using this method, you can safely cross currents usually

too strong for one person to stand against. Do not concern yourself

about your pack’s weight, as the weight will help rather than

hinder you in fording the stream.

17-11. If there are other people with you, cross the stream

together. Ensure that everyone has prepared their pack and

clothing as outlined above. Position the heaviest person on the

downstream end of the pole and the lightest on the upstream end.

In using this method, the upstream person breaks the current,

and those below can move with relative ease in the eddy formed

by the upstream person. If the upstream person gets temporarily

swept off his feet, the others can hold steady while he regains his

footing (Figure 17-2).

Figure 17-2. Several Men Crossing Swift Stream

17-12. If you have three or more people and a rope available, you

can use the technique shown in Figure 17-3, page 17-5, to cross

the stream. The length of the rope must be three times the width

of the stream.

17-4

FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002) - page 10