FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002)

blindness are a sensation of grit in the eyes, pain in and over the

eyes that increases with eyeball movement, red and teary eyes,

and a headache that intensifies with continued exposure to light.

Prolonged exposure to these rays can result in permanent eye

damage. To treat snow blindness, bandage your eyes until the

symptoms disappear.

15-39. You can prevent snow blindness by wearing sunglasses. If

you don’t have sunglasses, improvise. Cut slits in a piece of

cardboard, thin wood, tree bark, or other available material

(Figure 15-3). Putting soot under your eyes will help reduce shine

and glare.

Figure 15-3. Improvised Sunglasses

CONSTIPATION

15-40. It is very important to relieve yourself when needed. Do

not delay because of the cold condition. Delaying relieving

yourself because of the cold, eating dehydrated foods, drinking too

little liquid, and irregular eating habits can cause you to become

constipated. Although not disabling, constipation can cause some

discomfort. Increase your fluid intake to at least 2 liters above

your normal 2 to 3 liters daily intake and, if available, eat fruit

and other foods that will loosen the stool.

INSECT BITES

15-12

15-41. Insect bites can become infected through constant

scratching. Flies can carry various disease-producing germs. To

prevent insect bites, use insect repellent and netting and wear

proper clothing. See Chapter 11 for information on insect bites

and Chapter 4 for treatment.

SHELTERS

15-42. Your environment and the equipment you carry with you

will determine the type of shelter you can build. You can build

shelters in wooded areas, open country, and barren areas.

Wooded areas usually provide the best location, while barren

areas have only snow as building material. Wooded areas provide

timber for shelter construction, wood for fire, concealment from

observation, and protection from the wind.

NOTE: In extreme cold, do not use metal, such as an aircraft

fuselage, for shelter. The metal will conduct away from the

shelter what little heat you can generate.

15-43. Shelters made from ice or snow usually require tools such

as ice axes or saws. You must also expend much time and energy

to build such a shelter. Be sure to ventilate an enclosed shelter,

especially if you intend to build a fire in it. Always block a

shelter’s entrance, if possible, to keep the heat in and the wind

out. Use a rucksack or snow block. Construct a shelter no larger

than needed. This will reduce the amount of space to heat. A fatal

error in cold weather shelter construction is making the shelter so

large that it steals body heat rather than helps save it.

15-44. Never sleep directly on the ground. Lay down some pine

boughs, grass, or other insulating material to keep the ground

from absorbing your body heat.

15-45. Never fall asleep without turning out your stove or lamp.

Carbon monoxide poisoning can result from a fire burning in an

unventilated shelter. Carbon monoxide is a great danger. It is

colorless and odorless. Any time you have an open flame, it may

generate carbon monoxide. Always check your ventilation. Even in

a ventilated shelter, incomplete combustion can cause carbon

monoxide poisoning. Usually, there are no symptoms.

Unconsciousness and death can occur without warning.

Sometimes, however, pressure at the temples, burning of the eyes,

15-13

headache, pounding pulse, drowsiness, or nausea may occur. The

one characteristic, visible sign of carbon monoxide poisoning is a

cherry red coloring in the tissues of the lips, mouth, and inside of

the eyelids. Get into fresh air at once if you have any of these

symptoms.

15-46. There are several types of field-expedient shelters you can

quickly build or employ. Many use snow for insulation.

SNOW CAVE SHELTER

15-47. The snow cave shelter (Figure 15-4, page 15-15) is a most

effective dwelling because of the insulating qualities of snow.

Remember that it takes time and energy to build and that you

will get wet while building it. First, you need to find a drift about

3 meters (10 feet) deep into which you can dig. While building this

shelter, keep the roof arched for strength and to allow melted

snow to drain down the sides. Build the sleeping platform higher

than the entrance. Separate the sleeping platform from the snow

cave’s walls or dig a small trench between the platform and the

wall. This platform will prevent the melting snow from wetting

you and your equipment. This construction is especially

important if you have a good source of heat in the snow cave.

Ensure the roof is high enough so that you can sit up on the

sleeping platform. Block the entrance with a snow block or other

material and use the lower entrance area for cooking. The walls

and ceiling should be at least 30 centimeters (1 foot) thick. Install

a ventilation shaft. If you do not have a drift large enough to build

a snow cave, you can make a variation of it by piling snow into a

mound large enough to dig out.

15-14

SNOW TRENCH SHELTER

15-48. The idea behind this shelter (Figure 15-4, page 15-15) is to

get you below the snow and wind level and use the snow’s

insulating qualities. If you are in an area of compacted snow, cut

snow blocks and use them as overhead cover. If not, you can use a

poncho or other material. Build only one entrance and use a snow

block or rucksack as a door.

SNOW BLOCK AND PARACHUTE SHELTER

15-49. Use snow blocks for the sides and parachute material for

overhead cover (Figure 15-4, page 15-15). If snowfall is heavy, you

will have to clear snow from the top at regular intervals to

prevent the collapse of the parachute material.

SNOW HOUSE OR IGLOO

15-50. In certain areas, the natives frequently use this type of

shelter (Figure 15-4, page 15-15) as hunting and fishing shelters.

They are efficient shelters but require some practice to make

them properly. Also, you must be in an area that is suitable for

cutting snow blocks and have the equipment to cut them (snow

saw or knife).

LEAN-TO SHELTER

15-51. Construct this shelter in the same manner as for other

environments. However, pile snow around the sides for insulation

(Figure 15-5).

15-16

FALLEN TREE SHELTER

15-52. To build this shelter, find a fallen tree and dig out the

snow underneath it (Figure 15-6). The snow will not be deep

under the tree. If you must remove branches from the inside, use

them to line the floor.

Figure 15-6. Fallen Tree as Shelter

TREE-PIT SHELTER

15-53. Dig snow out from under a suitable large tree. It will not

be as deep near the base of the tree. Use the cut branches to line

the shelter. Use a ground sheet as overhead cover to prevent snow

from falling off the tree into the shelter. If built properly, you can

have 360-degree visibility (Chapter 5, Figure 5-12, page 5-18).

20-MAN LIFE RAFT

15-54. This raft is the standard overwater raft on U.S. Air Force

aircraft. You can use it as a shelter. Do not let large amounts of

snow build up on the overhead protection. If placed in an open

area, it also serves as a good signal to overhead aircraft.

FIRE

15-55. Fire is especially important in cold weather. It not only

provides a means to prepare food, but also to get warm and to

melt snow or ice for water. It also provides you with a significant

psychological boost by making you feel a little more secure in

your situation.

15-17

15-56. Use the techniques described in Chapter 7 to build and

light your fire. If you are in enemy territory, remember that the

smoke, smell, and light from your fire may reveal your location.

Light reflects from surrounding trees or rocks, making even

indirect light a source of danger. Smoke tends to go straight up in

cold, calm weather, making it a beacon during the day, but

helping to conceal the smell at night. In warmer weather,

especially in a wooded area, smoke tends to hug the ground,

making it less visible in the day, but making its odor spread.

15-57. If you are in enemy territory, cut low tree boughs rather

than the entire tree for firewood. Fallen trees are easily seen from

the air.

15-58. All wood will burn, but some types of wood create more

smoke than others. For instance, coniferous trees that contain

resin and tar create more and darker smoke than deciduous trees.

15-59. There are few materials to use for fuel in the high

mountainous regions of the arctic. You may find some grasses and

moss, but very little. The lower the elevation, the more fuel

available. You may find some scrub willow and small, stunted spruce

trees above the tree line. On sea ice, fuels are seemingly nonexistent.

Driftwood or fats may be the only fuels available to a survivor on the

barren coastlines in the arctic and subarctic regions.

15-60. Abundant fuels within the tree line are as follows:

• Spruce trees are common in the interior regions. As a

conifer, spruce makes a lot of smoke when burned in the

spring and summer months. However, it burns almost

smoke-free in late fall and winter.

• The tamarack tree is also a conifer. It is the only tree of the

pine family that loses its needles in the fall. Without its

needles, it looks like a dead spruce, but it has many

knobby buds and cones on its bare branches. When

burning, tamarack wood makes a lot of smoke and is

excellent for signaling purposes.

• Birch trees are deciduous and the wood burns hot and fast,

as if soaked with oil or kerosene. Most birches grow near

streams and lakes, but occasionally you will find a few on

higher ground and away from water.

15-18

• Willow and alder grow in arctic regions, normally in marsh

areas or near lakes and streams. These woods burn hot

and fast without much smoke.

15-61. Dried moss, grass, and scrub willow are other materials

you can use for fuel. These are usually plentiful near streams in

tundras (open, treeless plains). By bundling or twisting grasses or

other scrub vegetation to form a large, solid mass, you will have a

slower burning, more productive fuel.

15-62. If fuel or oil is available from a wrecked vehicle or downed

aircraft, use it for fuel. Leave the fuel in the tank for storage,

drawing on the supply only as you need it. Oil congeals in

extremely cold temperatures, therefore, drain it from the vehicle

or aircraft while still warm if there is no danger of explosion or

fire. If you have no container, let the oil drain onto the snow or

ice. Scoop up the fuel as you need it.

CAUTION

Do not expose flesh to petroleum, oil, and lubricants in

extremely cold temperatures. The liquid state of these

products is deceptive in that it can cause frostbite.

15-63. Some plastic products, such as MRE spoons, helmet visors,

visor housings, and foam rubber will ignite quickly from a

burning match. They will also burn long enough to help start a

fire. For example, a plastic spoon will burn for about 10 minutes.

15-64. In cold weather regions, there are some hazards in using

fires, whether to keep warm or to cook. For example—

• Fires have been known to burn underground, resurfacing

nearby. Therefore, do not build a fire too close to a shelter.

• In snow shelters, excessive heat will melt the insulating

layer of snow that may also be your camouflage.

• A fire inside a shelter lacking adequate ventilation can

result in carbon monoxide poisoning.

• A person trying to get warm or to dry clothes may become

careless and burn or scorch his clothing and equipment.

15-19

• Melting overhead snow may get you wet, bury you and

your equipment, and possibly extinguish your fire.

15-65. In general, a small fire and some type of stove is the best

combination for cooking purposes. A hobo stove (Figure 15-7) is

particularly suitable to the arctic. It is easy to make out of a tin

can, and it conserves fuel. A bed of hot coals provides the best

cooking heat. Coals from a crisscross fire will settle uniformly.

Make this type of fire by crisscrossing the firewood. A simple

crane propped on a forked stick will hold a cooking container over

a fire.

Figure 15-7. Cooking Fire and Stove

15-66. For heating purposes, a single candle provides enough heat

to warm an enclosed shelter. A small fire about the size of a man’s

hand is ideal for use in enemy territory. It requires very little

fuel, yet it generates considerable warmth and is hot enough to

warm liquids.

WATER

15-67. There are many sources of water in the arctic and

subarctic. Your location and the season of the year will determine

where and how you obtain water.

15-20

15-68. Water sources in arctic and subarctic regions are more

sanitary than in other regions due to the climatic and

environmental conditions. However, always purify the water

before drinking it. During the summer months, the best natural

sources of water are freshwater lakes, streams, ponds, rivers, and

springs. Water from ponds or lakes may be slightly stagnant but

still usable. Running water in streams, rivers, and bubbling

springs is usually fresh and suitable for drinking.

15-69. The brownish surface water found in a tundra during the

summer is a good source of water. However, you may have to

filter the water before purifying it.

15-70. You can melt freshwater ice and snow for water.

Completely melt both before putting them in your mouth. Trying

to melt ice or snow in your mouth takes away body heat and may

cause internal cold injuries. If on or near pack ice in the sea, you

can use old sea ice to melt for water. In time, sea ice loses its

salinity. You can identify this ice by its rounded corners and

bluish color.

15-71. You can use body heat to melt snow. Place the snow in a

water bag and place the bag between your layers of clothing. This

is a slow process, but you can use it on the move or when you

have no fire.

NOTE: Do not waste fuel to melt ice or snow when drinkable

water is available from other sources.

15-72. When ice is available, melt it rather than snow. One cup of

ice yields more water than one cup of snow. Ice also takes less

time to melt. You can melt ice or snow in a water bag, MRE ration

bag, tin can, or improvised container by placing the container

near a fire. Begin with a small amount of ice or snow in the

container and, as it turns to water, add more ice or snow.

15-73. Another way to melt ice or snow is by putting it in a bag

made from porous material and suspending the bag near the fire.

Place a container under the bag to catch the water.

15-74. During cold weather, avoid drinking a lot of liquid before

going to bed. Crawling out of a warm sleeping bag at night to

relieve yourself means less rest and more exposure to the cold.

15-21

15-75. Once you have water, keep it next to you to prevent

refreezing. Also, do not fill your canteen completely. Allowing the

water to slosh around will help keep it from freezing.

FOOD

15-76. There are several sources of food in the arctic and

subarctic regions. The type of food—fish, animal, fowl, or plant—

and the ease in obtaining it depend on the time of the year and

your location.

FISH

15-77. During the summer months, you can easily get fish and

other water life from coastal waters, streams, rivers, and lakes.

Use the techniques described in Chapter 8 to catch fish.

15-78. The North Atlantic and North Pacific coastal waters are

rich in seafood. You can easily find crawfish, snails, clams,

oysters, and king crab. In areas where there is a great difference

between the high and low tidewater levels, you can easily find

shellfish at low tide. Dig in the sand on the tidal flats. Look in

tidal pools and on offshore reefs. In areas where there is a small

difference between the high- and low-tide water levels, storm

waves often wash shellfish onto the beaches.

15-79. The eggs of the spiny sea urchin that lives in the waters

around the Aleutian Islands and southern Alaska are excellent

food. Look for the sea urchins in tidal pools. Break the shell by

placing it between two stones. The eggs are bright yellow in color.

15-80. Most northern fish and fish eggs are edible. Exceptions are

the meat of the arctic shark and the eggs of the sculpins.

15-81. The bivalves, such as clams and mussels, are usually more

palatable than spiral-shelled seafood, such as snails.

15-82. The sea cucumber is another edible sea animal. Inside its

body are five long white muscles that taste much like clam meat.

15-22

WARNING

The black mussel, a common mollusk of the far

north, may be poisonous in any season. Toxins

sometimes found in the mussel’s tissue are as

dangerous as strychnine.

15-83. In early summer, smelt spawn in the beach surf.

Sometimes you can scoop them up with your hands.

15-84. You can often find herring eggs on the seaweed in

midsummer. Kelp, the long ribbonlike seaweed, and other smaller

seaweeds that grow among offshore rocks are also edible.

SEA ICE ANIMALS

15-85. You find polar bears in practically all arctic coastal

regions, but rarely inland. Avoid them if possible. They are the

most dangerous of all bears. They are tireless, clever hunters with

good sight and an extraordinary sense of smell. If you must kill

one for food, approach it cautiously. Aim for the brain; a bullet

elsewhere will rarely kill one. Always cook polar bear meat before

eating it.

CAUTION

Do not eat polar bear liver as it contains a toxic

concentration of vitamin A.

15-86. Earless seal meat is some of the best meat available.

However, you need considerable skill to get close enough to an

earless seal to kill it. In spring, seals often bask on the ice beside

their breathing holes. They raise their heads about every 30

seconds, however, to look for their enemy, the polar bear.

15-87. To approach a seal, do as the Eskimos do—stay downwind

from it, cautiously moving closer while it sleeps. If it moves, stop

and imitate its movements by lying flat on the ice, raising your

head up and down, and wriggling your body slightly. Approach

the seal with your body sideways to it and your arms close to your

15-23

body so that you look as much like another seal as possible. The

ice at the edge of the breathing hole is usually smooth and at an

incline, so the least movement of the seal may cause it to slide

into the water. Therefore, try to get within 22 to 45 meters (73 to

148 feet) of the seal and kill it instantly (aim for the brain). Try to

reach the seal before it slips into the water. In winter, a dead seal

will usually float, but it is difficult to retrieve from the water.

15-88. Keep the seal blubber and skin from coming into contact with

any scratch or broken skin you may have. You could get “spekk-

finger,” a reaction that causes the hands to become badly swollen.

15-89. Keep in mind that where there are seals, there are usually

polar bears, and polar bears have stalked and killed seal hunters.

15-90. You can find porcupines in southern subarctic regions

where there are trees. Porcupines feed on bark; if you find tree

limbs stripped bare, you are likely to find porcupines in the area.

15-91. Ptarmigans, owls, Canadian jays, grouse, and ravens are

the only birds that remain in the arctic during the winter. They

are scarce north of the tree line. Ptarmigans and owls are as good

for food as any game bird. Ravens are too thin to be worth the

effort it takes to catch them. Ptarmigans, which change color to

blend with their surroundings, are hard to spot. Rock ptarmigans

travel in pairs and you can easily approach them. Willow

ptarmigans live among willow clumps in bottomlands. They

gather in large flocks and you can easily snare them. During the

summer months, all arctic birds have a 2- to 3-week molting

period during which they cannot fly and are easy to catch. Use

one of the techniques described in Chapter 8 to catch them.

15-92. Skin and butcher game (Chapter 8) while it is still warm.

If you do not have time to skin the game, at least remove its

entrails, musk glands, and genitals before storing. If time allows,

cut the meat into usable pieces and freeze each separately so that

you can use the pieces as needed. Leave the fat on all animals

except seals. During the winter, game freezes quickly if left in the

open. During the summer, you can store it in underground

ice holes.

15-24

PLANTS

15-93. Although tundras support a variety of plants during the

warm months, all are small when compared to similar plants in

warmer climates. For instance, the arctic willow and birch are

shrubs rather than trees. Appendix B consists of plant foods and

descriptions that are found in arctic and subarctic regions.

15-94. There are some plants growing in arctic and subarctic

regions that are poisonous if eaten (Appendix C). Use the plants

that you know are edible. When in doubt, follow the Universal

Edibility Test in Chapter 9, Figure 9-5, page 9-7.

TRAVEL

15-95. You will face many obstacles if your survival situation is in

an arctic or subarctic region. Your location and the time of the

year will determine the types of obstacles and the inherent

dangers. You should—

• Avoid traveling during a blizzard.

• Take care when crossing thin ice. Distribute your weight

by lying flat and crawling.

• Cross streams when the water level is lowest. Normal

freezing and thawing action may cause a stream level to

vary as much as 2 to 2.5 meters (7 to 8 feet) per day. This

variance may occur any time during the day, depending on

the distance from a glacier, the temperature, and the

terrain. Consider this variation in water level when

selecting a campsite near a stream.

• Consider the clear arctic air. It makes estimating distance

difficult. You more frequently underestimate than

overestimate distances.

• Avoid travel in

“whiteout” conditions. The lack of

contrasting colors makes it impossible to judge the nature

of the terrain.

• Always cross a snow bridge at right angles to the obstacle

it crosses. Find the strongest part of the bridge by poking

ahead of you with a pole or ice axe. Distribute your weight

by crawling or by wearing snowshoes or skis.

15-25

• Make camp early so that you have plenty of time to build a

shelter.

• Consider frozen or unfrozen rivers as avenues of travel.

However, some rivers that appear frozen may have soft,

open areas that make travel very difficult or may not allow

walking, skiing, or sledding.

• Use snowshoes if you are traveling over snow-covered

terrain. Snow 30 or more centimeters (12 inches or more)

deep makes traveling difficult. If you do not have

snowshoes, make a pair using willow, strips of cloth,

leather, or other suitable material.

15-96. It is almost impossible to travel in deep snow without

snowshoes or skis. Traveling by foot leaves a well-marked trail for

any pursuers to follow. If you must travel in deep snow, avoid

snow-covered streams. The snow, which acts as an insulator, may

have prevented ice from forming over the water. In hilly terrain,

avoid areas where avalanches appear possible. Travel in the early

morning in areas where there is danger of avalanches. On ridges,

snow gathers on the lee side in overhanging piles called cornices.

These often extend far out from the ridge and may break loose if

stepped on.

WEATHER SIGNS

15-97. In most situations you can determine the effects that

weather can have on basic survival needs. Several good indicators

of climatic changes include the following:

WIND

15-98. You can determine wind direction by dropping grass or a

few leaves or by watching the treetops. Once you determine the

wind direction, you can predict the type of weather that is

imminent. Rapidly shifting winds indicate an unsettled

atmosphere and a likely change in the weather.

CLOUDS

15-99. Clouds come in a variety of shapes and patterns. A general

knowledge of clouds and the atmospheric conditions they indicate

15-26

can help you predict the weather. Appendix H explains cloud

formations in more detail.

SMOKE

15-100. Smoke rising in a thin vertical column indicates fair

weather. Low rising or “flattened out” smoke indicates stormy

weather.

BIRDS AND INSECTS

15-101. Birds and insects fly lower to the ground than normal in

heavy, moisture-laden air. Such flight indicates that rain is likely.

Most insect activity increases before a storm, but bee activity

increases before fair weather.

LOW-PRESSURE FRONT

15-102. Slow-moving or imperceptible winds and heavy, humid

air often indicate a low-pressure front. Such a front promises bad

weather that will probably linger for several days. You can

“smell” and “hear” this front. The sluggish, humid air makes

wilderness odors more pronounced than during high-pressure

conditions. In addition, sounds are sharper and carry farther in

low-pressure conditions than high-pressure conditions.

15-27

Chapter 16

Sea Survival

Sea survival is perhaps the most difficult survival

situation. Short- or long-term survival depends

upon rations, equipment available, and your

ingenuity. You must be resourceful to survive.

Water covers about

75 percent of the earth’s

surface, with about 70 percent being oceans and

seas. You can assume that you will sometime

cross vast expanses of water. There is always the

chance that the plane or ship you are on will

become crippled by such hazards as storms,

collision, fire, or war.

THE OPEN SEA

16-1. As a survivor on the open sea, you will face waves and wind.

You may also face extreme heat or cold. To keep these

environmental hazards from becoming serious problems, take

precautionary measures as soon as possible. Use the available

resources to protect yourself from the elements and from heat or

extreme cold and humidity.

16-2. Protecting yourself from the elements meets only one of

your basic needs. You must also be able to obtain water and food.

Satisfying these basic needs will help prevent serious physical

and psychological problems. However, you must also know how to

treat health problems that may arise.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES

16-3. Your survival at sea depends upon your—

• Knowledge of and ability to use the available survival

equipment.

• Special skills and ability to cope with the hazards

you face.

• Will to live.

16-1

16-4. When you board a ship or aircraft, find out what survival

equipment is on board, where it is stowed, and what it contains.

For instance, how many life preservers and lifeboats or rafts are

on board? Where are they located? What type of survival

equipment do they have? How much food, water, and medicine do

they contain? How many people can be supported? Also, if you are

responsible for other personnel on board, make sure you know

where they are and they know where you are.

DOWN AT SEA

16-5. If your aircraft goes down at sea, take the following actions.

Whether you are in the water or in a raft, you should—

• Get clear and upwind of the aircraft as soon as possible,

but stay in the vicinity until the aircraft sinks.

• Get clear of fuel-covered water in case the fuel ignites.

• Try to find other survivors.

16-6. A search for survivors usually takes place around the entire

area of and near the crash site. Missing personnel may be

unconscious and floating low in the water. Figure 16-1, page 16-3,

illustrates three rescue procedures.

16-7. The best technique for rescuing personnel from the water is

to throw them a life preserver attached to a line (A). Another is to

send a swimmer (rescuer) from the raft with a line attached to a

flotation device that will support the rescuer’s weight (B). This

device will help conserve a rescuer’s energy while recovering the

survivor. The least acceptable technique is to send an attached

swimmer without flotation devices to retrieve a survivor (C). In

all cases, the rescuer wears a life preserver. A rescuer should not

underestimate the strength of a panic-stricken person in the

water. A careful approach can prevent injury to the rescuer.

16-8. When the rescuer approaches a survivor in trouble from

behind, there is little danger the survivor will kick, scratch, or

grab him. The rescuer swims to a point directly behind the

survivor and grasps the life preserver’s backstrap. The rescuer

uses the sidestroke to drag the survivor to the raft.

16-2

16-9. If you are in the water, make your way to a raft. If no rafts

are available, try to find a large piece of floating debris to cling to.

Relax; a person who knows how to relax in ocean water is in very

little danger of drowning. The body’s natural buoyancy will keep

at least the top of the head above water, but some movement is

needed to keep the face above water.

16-10. Floating on your back takes the least energy. Lie on your

back in the water, spread your arms and legs, and arch your back.

By controlling your breathing in and out, your face will always be

out of the water and you may even sleep in this position for short

periods. Your head will be partially submerged, but your face will

be above water. If you cannot float on your back or if the sea is too

rough, float facedown in the water as shown in Figure 16-2.

Figure 16-2. Floating Position

16-4

16-11. The following are the best swimming strokes during a

survival situation:

• Dog paddle. This stroke is excellent when clothed or

wearing a life jacket. Although slow in speed, it requires

very little energy.

• Breaststroke. Use this stroke to swim underwater, through

oil or debris, or in rough seas. It is probably the best stroke

for long-range swimming: it allows you to conserve your

energy and maintain a reasonable speed.

• Sidestroke. It is a good relief stroke because you use only

one arm to maintain momentum and buoyancy.

• Backstroke. This stroke is also an excellent relief stroke. It

relieves the muscles that you use for other strokes. Use it

if an underwater explosion is likely.

16-12. If you are in an area where surface oil is burning—

• Discard your shoes and buoyant life preserver.

NOTE: If you have an uninflated life preserver, keep it.

• Cover your nose, mouth, and eyes and quickly go

underwater.

• Swim underwater as far as possible before surfacing to

breathe.

• Before surfacing to breathe and while still underwater, use

your hands to push burning fluid away from the area

where you wish to surface. Once an area is clear of burning

liquid, you can surface and take a few breaths. Try to face

downwind before inhaling.

• Submerge feet first and continue as above until clear of the

flames.

16-13. If you are in oil-covered water that is free of fire, hold your

head high to keep the oil out of your eyes. Attach your life

preserver to your wrist and then use it as a raft.

16-14. If you have a life preserver, you can stay afloat for an

indefinite period. In this case, use the “Heat Escaping Lessening

Posture (HELP)” body position (Figure 16-3, page 16-6). Remain

still and assume the fetal position to help you retain body heat.

16-5

You lose about 50 percent of your body heat through your head.

Therefore, keep your head out of the water. Other areas of high

heat loss are the neck, the sides, and the groin.

Figure 16-3. HELP Position

16-15. If you are in a raft (also see Raft Procedures, page 16-12)—

• Check the physical condition of all on board. Give first aid

if necessary. Take seasickness pills if available. The best

way to take these pills is to place them under the tongue

and let them dissolve. There are also suppositories or

injections against seasickness. Vomiting, whether from

seasickness or other causes, increases the danger of

dehydration.

• Try to salvage all floating equipment—rations; canteens,

thermos jugs, and other containers; clothing; seat cushions;

parachutes; and anything else that will be useful to you.

Secure the salvaged items in or to your raft. Make sure the

items have no sharp edges that can puncture the raft.

• If there are other rafts, lash the rafts together so they are

about 7.5 meters (25 feet) apart. Be ready to draw them

16-6

closer together if you see or hear an aircraft. It is easier for

an aircrew to spot rafts that are close together rather than

scattered.

•

Remember, rescue at sea is a cooperative effort. Use all

available visual or electronic signaling devices to signal

and make contact with rescuers. For example, raise a flag

or reflecting material on an oar as high as possible to

attract attention.

•

Locate the emergency radio and get it into operation.

Operating instructions are on it. Use the emergency

transceiver only when friendly aircraft are likely to be in

the area.

•

Have other signaling devices ready for instant use. If you

are in enemy territory, avoid using a signaling device that

will alert the enemy. However, if your situation is

desperate, you may have to signal the enemy for rescue if

you are to survive.

•

Check the raft for inflation, leaks, and points of possible

chafing. Make sure the main buoyancy chambers are firm

(well rounded) but not overly tight (Figure 16-4, page 16-8).

Check inflation regularly. Air expands with heat; therefore,

on hot days, release some air and add air when the

weather cools.

•

Decontaminate the raft of all fuel. Petroleum will weaken

its surfaces and break down its glued joints.

•

Throw out the sea anchor, or improvise a drag from the

raft’s case, a bailing bucket, or a roll of clothing. A sea

anchor helps you stay close to your ditching site, making it

easier for searchers to find you if you have relayed your

location. Without a sea anchor, your raft may drift over

160 kilometers (96 miles) in a day, making it much harder

to find you. You can adjust the sea anchor to act as a drag

to slow down the rate of travel with the current, or as a

means to travel with the current. You make this

adjustment by opening or closing the sea anchor’s apex.

When open, the sea anchor (Figure 16-5, page 16-8) acts as

a drag that keeps you in the general area. When closed, it

forms a pocket for the current to strike and propels the raft

in the current’s direction.

16-7

16-16. Also adjust the sea anchor so that when the raft is on the

wave’s crest, the sea anchor is in the wave’s trough (Figure 16-6).

Figure 16-6. Deployment of the Sea Anchor

• Wrap the sea anchor rope with cloth to prevent its chafing

the raft. The anchor also helps to keep the raft headed into

the wind and waves.

• In stormy water, rig the spray and windshield at once. In a

25-man raft, keep the canopy erected at all times. Keep

your raft as dry as possible. Keep it properly balanced. All

personnel should stay seated, the heaviest one in the

center.

• Calmly consider all aspects of your situation and

determine what you and your companions must do to

survive. Inventory all equipment, food, and water.

Waterproof items that salt water may affect. These include

compasses, watches, sextant, matches, and lighters. Ration

food and water.

• Assign a duty position to each person or assign teams, for

example, water collectors, food collectors, lookouts, radio

operators, signalers, and water bailers.

NOTE: Lookout duty should not exceed 2 hours. Keep in mind

and remind others that cooperation is one of the keys to survival.

• Keep a log. Record the navigator’s last fix, the time of

ditching, the names and physical condition of personnel,

and the ration schedule. Also record the winds, weather,

16-9

direction of swells, times of sunrise and sunset, and other

navigational data.

• If you are down in unfriendly waters, take special security

measures to avoid detection. Do not travel in the daytime.

Throw out the sea anchor and wait for nightfall before

paddling or hoisting sail. Keep low in the raft; stay covered

with the blue side of the camouflage cloth up. Be sure a

passing ship or aircraft is friendly or neutral before trying

to attract its attention. If the enemy detects you and you

are close to capture, destroy the logbook, radio, navigation

equipment, maps, signaling equipment, and firearms.

Jump overboard and submerge if the enemy starts

strafing.

• Decide whether to stay in position or to travel. Ask

yourself, “How much information was signaled before the

accident? Is your position known to rescuers? Do you know

it yourself? Is the weather favorable for a search? Are

other ships or aircraft likely to pass your present position?

How many days supply of food and water do you have?”

COLD WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS

16-17. If you are in a cold climate—

• Put on an antiexposure suit. If unavailable, put on any

extra clothing available. Keep clothes loose and

comfortable.

• Take care not to snag the raft with shoes or sharp objects.

Keep the repair kit where you can readily reach it.

• Rig a windbreak, spray shield, and canopy.

• Try to keep the floor of the raft dry. Cover it with canvas or

cloth for insulation.

• Huddle with others to keep warm, moving enough to keep

the blood circulating. Spread an extra tarpaulin, sail, or

parachute over the group.

• Give extra rations, if available, to men suffering from

exposure to cold.

16-10

16-18. The greatest threat you face when submerged in cold water

is death due to hypothermia. The average ocean temperature

around the world is only 11 degrees C (51 degrees F). However, do

not be fooled by warm water—hypothermia can even occur in 27-

degree C (80-degree F) water. When you are immersed in cold

water, hypothermia occurs rapidly due to the decreased

insulating quality of wet clothing and the result of water

displacing the layer of still air that normally surrounds the body.

The rate of heat exchange in water is about 25 times greater than

it is in air of the same temperature. Figure

16-7 lists life

expectancy times for immersion in water.

Water Temperature

Time

21.0-15.5 degrees C (70-60 degrees F)

12 hours

15.5-10.0 degrees C (60-50 degrees F)

6 hours

10.0-4.5 degrees C (50-40 degrees F)

1 hour

4.5 degrees C (40 degrees F) and below

Less than 1 hour

NOTE: Wearing an antiexposure suit may increase these times up to a

maximum of 24 hours.

Figure 16-7. Life Expectancy Times for Immersion in Water

16-19. Your best protection against the effects of cold water is to

get into the life raft, stay dry, and insulate your body from the

cold surface of the bottom of the raft. If these actions are not

possible, wearing an antiexposure suit will extend your life

expectancy considerably. Remember, keep your head and neck out

of the water and well insulated from the cold water’s effects when

the temperature is below 19 degrees C (66 degrees F). Wearing

life preservers increases the predicted survival time as body

position in the water increases the chance of survival.

HOT WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS

16-20. If you are in a hot climate—

• Rig a sunshade or canopy. Leave enough space for

ventilation.

• Cover your skin, where possible, to protect it from

sunburn. Use sunburn cream, if available, on all exposed

16-11

skin. Your eyelids, the back of your ears, and the skin

under your chin sunburn easily.

RAFT PROCEDURES

16-21. Most of the rafts in the U.S. Army and Air Force

inventories can satisfy the needs for personal protection, mode of

travel, and evasion and camouflage.

NOTE: Before boarding any raft, remove and tether (attach)

your life preserver to yourself or the raft. Ensure there are no

other metallic or sharp objects on your clothing or equipment that

could damage the raft. After boarding the raft, don your life

preserver again.

16-22. For all rafts, remember the five As. These are the first

things you should do if you are the first person into the raft:

• Air-Check that all chambers are inflated and that all

inflation valves are closed and equalization tube clamps

(found on the 25-, 35-, and 46-man rafts) are clamped off

when fully inflated.

• Assistance-Assist others into the raft. Remove all

puncture-producing items from pockets and move flotation

devices to the rear of the body. Use proper boarding

techniques; for example, the boarding loop on the seven-

man raft and the boarding ramps on the 25-, 35-, and 46-

man rafts.

• Anchor-Ensure the sea anchor is properly deployed. It can

be found 180 degrees away from the equalization tube on

the 25-, 35-, and 46-man rafts.

• Accessory bag-Locate the accessory bag. It will be tethered

to the raft between the smooth side of the CO2 bottle and

the closest boarding ramp.

• Assessment-Assess the situation and keep a positive

mental attitude.

One-Man Raft

16-23. The one-man raft has a main cell inflation. If the CO2

bottle should malfunction or if the raft develops a leak, you can

inflate it by mouth.

16-12

16-24. The spray shield acts as a shelter from the cold, wind, and

water. In some cases, this shield serves as insulation. The raft’s

insulated bottom limits the conduction of cold thereby protecting

you from hypothermia (Figure 16-8).

16-25. You can travel more effectively by inflating or deflating the

raft to take advantage of the wind or current. You can use the

spray shield as a sail while the ballast buckets serve to increase

drag in the water. You may use the sea anchor to control the

raft’s speed and direction.

16-26. There are rafts developed for use in tactical areas that are

black. These rafts blend with the sea’s background. You can

further modify these rafts for evasion by partially deflating them

to obtain a lower profile.

Figure 16-8. One-Man Raft With Spray Shield

16-27. A lanyard connects the one-man raft to a parachutist

(survivor) landing in the water. You (the survivor) inflate it upon

landing. You do not swim to the raft, but pull it to you via the

lanyard. The raft may hit the water upside down, but you can

16-13

right it by approaching the side to which the bottle is attached

and flipping the raft over. The spray shield must be in the raft to

expose the boarding handles. Follow the five As outlined under

raft procedures above when boarding the raft (Figure 16-9).

Figure 16-9. Boarding the One-Man Raft

16-28. If you have an arm injury, the best way to board is by

turning your back to the small end of the raft, pushing the raft

under your buttocks, and lying back. Another way to board the

raft is to push down on its small end until one knee is inside and

lie forward (Figure 16-10).

Figure 16-10. Other Methods of Boarding the One-Man Raft

16-29. In rough seas, it may be easier for you to grasp the small

end of the raft and, in a prone position, to kick and pull yourself

into the raft. When you are lying face down in the raft, deploy and

adjust the sea anchor. To sit upright, you may have to disconnect

one side of the seat kit and roll to that side. Then you adjust the

16-14

FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002) - page 9