FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002)

INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS

11-1. Insects, except centipedes and millipedes, have six legs;

arachnids have eight. All these small creatures become pests

when they bite, sting, or irritate you.

11-2. Although their venom can be quite painful, bee, wasp, and

hornet stings rarely kill a person who is not allergic to that

particular toxin. Even the most dangerous spiders rarely kill, and

the effects of tick-borne diseases are very slow-acting. However,

in all cases, avoidance is the best defense. In environments

known to have spiders and scorpions, check your footgear and

clothing every morning. Also check your bedding and shelter. Use

care when turning over rocks and logs. See Appendix D for

examples of dangerous insects and arachnids.

SCORPIONS

11-3. You find scorpions (Buthotus species) in deserts, jungles,

and forests of tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate areas of

the world. They are mostly nocturnal. Desert scorpions range

from below sea level in Death Valley to elevations as high as

3,600 meters (12,000 feet) in the Andes. Typically brown or black

in moist areas, they may be yellow or light green in the desert.

Their average size is about 2.5 centimeters (1 inch). However,

there are 20-centimeter (8-inch) giants in the jungles of Central

America, New Guinea, and southern Africa. Fatalities from

scorpion stings are rare, but do occur with children, the elderly,

and ill persons. Scorpions resemble small lobsters with raised,

jointed tails bearing a stinger in the tip. Nature mimics the

scorpions with whip scorpions or vinegarroons. These are

harmless and have a tail like a wire or whip, rather than the

jointed tail and stinger of true scorpions.

SPIDERS

11-4. The brown recluse, or fiddleback spider, of North America

(Loxosceles reclusa) is recognized by a prominent violin-shaped

light spot on the back of its body. As its name suggests, this

spider likes to hide in dark places. Though its bite is rarely fatal,

it can cause excessive tissue degeneration around the wound,

leading to amputation of the digits if left untreated.

11-2

11-5. Members of the widow family (Latrodectus species) may be

found worldwide, though the black widow of North America is

perhaps the most well-known. Found in warmer areas of the

world, the widows are small, dark spiders with often hourglass-

shaped white, red, or orange spots on their abdomens.

11-6. Funnelwebs

(Atrax species) are large, gray or brown

Australian spiders. Chunky, with short legs, they are able to

move easily up and down the cone-shaped webs from which they

get their name. The local populace considers them deadly. Avoid

them as they move about, usually at night, in search of prey.

Symptoms of their bite are similar to those of the widow’s—severe

pain accompanied by sweating and shivering, weakness, and

disabling episodes that can last a week.

11-7. Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders

(Theraphosidae and

Lycosa species) best known because they are often sold in pet

stores. There is one species in Europe, but most come from

tropical America. Some South American species do inject a

dangerous toxin, but most simply produce a painful bite. Some

tarantulas can be as large as a dinner plate. They all have large

fangs for capturing food such as birds, mice, and lizards. If bitten

by a tarantula, pain and bleeding are certain, and infection is

likely.

CENTIPEDES AND MILLIPEDES

11-8. Centipedes and millipedes are mostly small and harmless,

although some tropical and desert species may reach 25 centimeters

(10 inches). A few varieties of centipedes have a poisonous bite, but

infection is the greatest danger, as their sharp claws dig in and

puncture the skin. To prevent skin punctures, brush them off in the

direction they are traveling.

BEES, WASPS, AND HORNETS

11-9. Bees, wasps, and hornets come in many varieties and have

a wide diversity of habits and habitats. You recognize bees by

their hairy and usually thick body, while the wasps, hornets, and

yellow jackets have more slender, nearly hairless bodies. Some

bees, such as honeybees, live in colonies. They may be either

domesticated or living wild in caves or hollow trees. You may find

other bees, such as carpenter bees, in individual nest holes in

wood or in the ground like bumblebees. The main danger from

11-3

bees is the barbed stinger located on their abdomens. When a bee

stings you, it rips its stinger out of its abdomen along with the

venom sac, and dies. Except for killer bees, most bees tend to be

more docile than wasps, hornets, and yellow jackets, which have

smooth stingers and are capable of repeated attacks.

11-10. Avoidance is the best tactic for self-protection. Watch out for

flowers or fruit where bees may be feeding. Be careful of meat-

eating yellow jackets when cleaning fish or game. The average

person has a relatively minor and temporary reaction to bee stings

and recovers in a couple of hours when the pain and headache go

away. Those who are allergic to bee venom have severe reactions

including anaphylactic shock, coma, and death. If antihistamine

medicine is not available and you cannot find a substitute, an

allergy sufferer in a survival situation is in grave danger.

TICKS

11-11. Ticks are common in the tropics and temperate regions.

They are familiar to most of us. Ticks are small, round arachnids.

They can have either a soft or hard body. Ticks require a blood

host to survive and reproduce. This makes them dangerous

because they spread diseases like Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain

spotted fever, encephalitis, and others that can ultimately be

disabling or fatal. There is little you can do to treat these diseases

once they are contracted, but time is your ally since it takes at

least 6 hours of attachment to the host for the tick to transmit the

disease organisms. Thus, you have time to thoroughly inspect

your body for their presence. Beware of ticks when passing

through the thick vegetation they cling to, when cleaning host

animals for food, and when gathering natural materials to

construct a shelter. Always use insect repellents, if possible.

LEECHES

11-12. Leeches are bloodsucking creatures with a wormlike

appearance. You find them in the tropics and in temperate zones.

You will certainly encounter them when swimming in infested

waters or making expedient water crossings. You can find them

when passing through swampy, tropical vegetation and bogs. You

can also find them while cleaning food animals, such as turtles,

found in fresh water. Leeches can crawl into small openings;

therefore, avoid camping in their habitats when possible.

11-4

Keep your trousers tucked in your boots. Check yourself

frequently for leeches. Swallowed or eaten, leeches can be a great

hazard. It is therefore essential to treat water from questionable

sources by boiling or using chemical water treatments. Survivors

have developed severe infections from wounds inside the throat or

nose when sores from swallowed leeches became infected.

BATS

11-13. Despite the legends, bats

(Desmodus species) are a

relatively small hazard to you. There are many bat varieties

worldwide, but you find the true vampire bats only in Central and

South America. They are small, agile fliers that land on their

sleeping victims, mostly cows and horses, to lap a blood meal after

biting their victim. Their saliva contains an anticoagulant that

keeps the blood slowly flowing while they feed. All bats are

considered to carry rabies. Any physical contact is considered to

be a rabies risk. They can carry other diseases and infections and

will bite readily when handled. However, taking shelter in a cave

occupied by bats presents the much greater hazard of inhaling

powdered bat dung, or guano. Bat dung carries many organisms

that can cause diseases. Eating thoroughly cooked flying foxes or

other bats presents no danger from rabies and other diseases, but

again, the emphasis is on thorough cooking.

VENOMOUS SNAKES

11-14. There are no infallible rules for expedient identification of

venomous snakes in the field, because the guidelines all require

close observation or manipulation of the snake’s body. The best

strategy is to leave all snakes alone. Where snakes are plentiful

and venomous species are present, the risk of their bites negates

their food value. Apply the following safety rules when traveling

in areas where there are venomous snakes:

• Walk carefully and watch where you step. Step onto logs

rather than over them in a survival situation. During

evasion, always step over or go around logs to leave fewer

signs for trackers.

• Look closely when picking fruit or moving around water.

11-5

• Do not tease, molest, or harass snakes. Snakes cannot

close their eyes. Therefore, you cannot tell if they are

asleep. Some snakes, such as mambas, cobras, and

bushmasters, will attack aggressively when cornered or

guarding a nest.

• Use sticks to turn logs and rocks.

• Wear proper footgear, particularly at night.

• Carefully check bedding, shelter, and clothing.

• Be calm when you encounter serpents. Snakes cannot hear

and you can occasionally surprise them when they are

sleeping or sunning. Normally, they will flee if given the

opportunity.

• Use extreme care if you must kill snakes for food or safety.

Although it is not common, warm, sleeping human bodies

occasionally attract snakes.

11-15. Appendix E provides detailed descriptions of the snakes

listed in Figure 11-1, pages 11-6 and 11-7.

The Americas

• American Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix)

• Bushmaster (Lachesis muta)

• Coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)

• Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus)

• Fer-de-lance (Bothrops atrox)

• Rattlesnake (Crotalus species)

Europe

• Common adder (Vipers berus)

• Pallas’ viper (Agkistrodon halys)

Africa and Asia

• Boomslang (Dispholidus typus)

• Cobra (Naja species)

Figure 11-1. Venomous Snakes of the World

11-6

Africa and Asia (Continued)

• Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica)

• Green tree pit viper (Trimeresurus gramineus)

• Habu pit viper (Trimeresurus flavoviridis)

• Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)

• Malayan pit viper (Callaselasma rhodostoma)

• Mamba (Dendraspis species)

• Puff adder (Bitis arietans)

• Rhinoceros viper (Bitis nasicornis)

• Russell’s viper (Vipera russellii)

• Sand viper (Cerastes vipera)

• Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)

• Wagler’s pit viper (Trimeresurus wagleri)

Australia

• Death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus)

• Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus)

• Tiger snake (Notechis scutatus)

• Yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus)

Figure 11-1. Venomous Snakes of the World (Continued)

SNAKE-FREE AREAS

11-16. The polar regions are free of snakes due to their

inhospitable environments. Other areas considered to be free of

venomous snakes are New Zealand, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto

Rico, Ireland, Polynesia, and Hawaii.

DANGEROUS LIZARDS

11-17. The Gila monster (Heloderma suspectrum) of the American

Southwest and Mexico is a dangerous and poisonous lizard with

dark, highly textured skin marked by pinkish mottling. It is

typically 35 to 45 centimeters (14 to 18 inches) in length and has

a thick, stumpy tail. The Gila monster is unlikely to bite unless

molested but has a poisonous bite.

11-7

11-18. The Mexican beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum) resembles

its relative, the Gila monster. However, it has more uniform spots

rather than bands of color. It also is poisonous and has a docile

nature. You may find it from Mexico to Central America.

11-19. The komodo dragon is a giant lizard

(Varanus

komodoensis) that grows to more than 3 meters (10 feet) in

length. It can be dangerous if you try to capture it. This

Indonesian lizard can weigh more than

135 kilograms

(300 pounds).

DANGERS IN RIVERS

11-20. Common sense will tell you to avoid confrontations with

hippopotami, alligators, crocodiles, and other large river

creatures. However, there are also the following smaller river

creatures with which you should be cautious.

11-21. Electric eels (Electrophorus electricus) may reach 2 meters

(7 feet) in length and 20 centimeters (8 inches) in diameter. Avoid

them. They are capable of generating up to 500 volts of electricity

in certain organs of their body. They use this shock to stun prey

and enemies. Normally, you find these eels in the Orinoco and

Amazon River systems in South America. They seem to prefer

shallow waters that are more highly oxygenated and provide

more food. They are bulkier than American eels. Their upper body

is dark gray or black with a lighter-colored underbelly.

11-22. Piranhas (Serrasalmo species) are another hazard of the

Orinoco and Amazon River systems, as well as the Paraguay

River Basin, where they are native. These fish vary greatly in size

and coloration, but usually have a combination of orange

undersides and dark tops. They have white, razor-sharp teeth

that are clearly visible. They may be as long as 50 centimeters (20

inches). Use great care when crossing waters where they live.

Blood attracts them. They are most dangerous in shallow waters

during the dry season.

11-23. Be careful when handling and capturing large freshwater

turtles, such as the snapping turtles and soft-shelled turtles of

North America and the matamata and other turtles of South

America. All of these turtles will bite in self-defense and can

amputate fingers and toes.

11-8

11-24. The platypus or duckbill (Ornithorhyncus anatinus) is the

only member of its family and is easily recognized. It has a long

body covered with grayish, short hair, a tail like a beaver, and a

bill like a duck. Growing up to 60 centimeters (24 inches) in

length, it may appear to be a good food source, but this egg-laying

mammal, the only one in the world, is very dangerous. The male

has a poisonous spur on each hind foot that can inflict intensely

painful wounds. You find the platypus only in Australia, mainly

along mud banks on waterways.

DANGERS IN BAYS AND ESTUARIES

11-25. In areas where seas and rivers come together, there are

dangers associated with both freshwater and saltwater. In

shallow saltwaters, there are many creatures that can inflict pain

and cause infection to develop. Stepping on sea urchins, for

example, can produce pain and infection. When moving about in

shallow water, wear some form of footgear and shuffle your feet

along the bottom, rather than picking up your feet and stepping.

11-26. Stingrays (Dasyatidae species) are a real hazard in shallow

waters, especially tropical waters. The type of bottom appears to

be irrelevant. There is a great variance between species, but all

have a sharp spike in their tail that may be venomous and can

cause extremely painful wounds if stepped on. All rays have a

typical shape that resembles a kite. You find them along the

coasts of the Americas, Africa, and Australia.

SALTWATER DANGERS

11-27. There are several fish that you should not handle, touch, or

contact. There are also others that you should not eat. These fish

are described below.

11-28. Sharks are the most feared animal in the sea. Usually,

shark attacks cannot be avoided and are considered accidents.

You should take every precaution to avoid any contact with

sharks. There are many shark species, but in general, dangerous

sharks have wide mouths and visible teeth, while relatively

harmless ones have small mouths on the underside of their heads.

However, any shark can inflict painful and often fatal injuries,

either through bites or through abrasions from their rough skin.

11-9

11-29. Rabbitfish or spinefoot (Siganidae species) live mainly on

coral reefs in the Indian and Pacific oceans. They have very

sharp, possibly venomous spines in their fins. Handle them with

care, if at all. This fish, like many others of the dangerous fish in

this section, is considered edible by native peoples where the fish

are found, but deaths occur from careless handling. Seek other

nonpoisonous fish to eat if possible.

11-30. Tang or surgeonfish (Acanthuridae species) average 20 to

25 centimeters (8 to 10 inches) in length and often are beautifully

colored. They are called surgeonfish because of the scalpel-like

spines located in the tail. The wounds inflicted by these spines

can bring about death through infection, envenomation, and loss

of blood, which may incidentally attract sharks.

11-31. Toadfish (Batrachoididae species) live in tropical waters off

the Gulf Coast of the United States and along both coasts of

Central and South America. These dully-colored fish average 18

to 25 centimeters (7 to 10 inches) in length. They typically bury

themselves in the sand to await fish and other prey. They have

sharp, very toxic spines along their backs.

11-32. Poisonous scorpion fish or zebra fish

(Scorpaenidae

species) are mostly around reefs in the tropical Indian and Pacific

oceans and occasionally in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas.

They average 30 to 75 centimeters (12 to 29 inches) in length.

Their coloration is highly variable, from reddish brown to almost

purple or brownish yellow. They have long, wavy fins and spines

and their sting is intensely painful. Less poisonous relatives live

in the Atlantic Ocean.

11-33. Stonefish (Synanceja species) are in the Pacific and Indian

oceans. They can inject a painful venom from their dorsal spines

when stepped on or handled carelessly. They are almost

impossible to see because of their lumpy shape and drab colors.

They range in size up to 40 centimeters (16 inches).

11-34. Weever fish (Trachinidae species) average 30 centimeters

(12 inches) long. They are hard to see as they lie buried in the

sand off the coasts of Europe, Africa, and the Mediterranean.

Their color is usually a dull brown. They have venomous spines

on the back and gills.

11-10

NOTE: Appendix F provides more details on these venomous fish

and toxic mollusks.

11-35. The livers of polar bears are considered toxic due to high

concentrations of vitamin A. There is a chance of death after eating

this organ. Another toxic meat is the flesh of the hawksbill turtle.

These animals are distinguished by a down-turned bill and yellow

polka dots on their neck and front flippers. They weigh more than

275 kilograms (605 pounds) and are unlikely to be captured.

11-36. Many fish living in lagoons, estuaries, or reefs near shore

are poisonous to eat, though some are only seasonally dangerous.

Although the majority are tropical fish; be wary of eating any

unidentifiable fish wherever you are. Some predatory fish, such

as barracuda and snapper, may become toxic if the fish they feed

on in shallow waters are poisonous. The most poisonous types

appear to have parrotlike beaks and hard shell-like skins with

spines and can often inflate their bodies like balloons. However,

at certain times of the year, indigenous populations consider the

puffer a delicacy.

11-37. The blowfish or puffer (Tetraodontidae species) are more

tolerant of cold water. They live along tropical and temperate

coasts worldwide, even in some of the rivers of Southeast Asia

and Africa. Stout-bodied and round, many of these fish have short

spines and can inflate themselves into a ball when alarmed or

agitated. Their blood, liver, and gonads are so toxic that as little

as 28 milligrams (1 ounce) can be fatal. These fish vary in color

and size, growing up to 75 centimeters (29 inches) in length.

11-38. The triggerfish (Balistidae species) occur in great variety,

mostly in tropical seas. They are deep-bodied and compressed,

resembling a seagoing pancake up to 60 centimeters (24 inches) in

length, with large and sharp dorsal spines. Avoid them all, as

many have poisonous flesh.

11-39. Although most people avoid them because of their ferocity,

they occasionally eat barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda). These

predators of mostly tropical seas can reach almost 1.5 meters (5

feet) in length and have attacked humans without provocation.

They occasionally carry the poison ciguatera in their flesh,

making them deadly if consumed.

11-11

OTHER DANGEROUS SEA CREATURES

11-40. The blue-ringed octopus, jellyfish, and the cone and auger

shells are other dangerous sea creatures. Therefore, you should

always be alert and move carefully in any body of water.

11-41. Most octopi are excellent when properly prepared.

However, the blue-ringed octopus (Hapalochlaena lunulata) can

inflict a deadly bite from its parrotlike beak. Fortunately, it is

restricted to the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and is very

small. It is easily recognized by its grayish white overall color and

irridescent blue rings. Authorities warn that all tropical octopus

species should be treated with caution because of their poisonous

bites, although their flesh is edible.

11-42. Deaths related to jellyfish are rare, but the sting they

inflict is extremely painful. The Portuguese man-of-war

resembles a large pink or purple balloon floating on the sea. It

has poisonous tentacles hanging up to 12 meters (40 feet) below

its body. The huge tentacles are actually colonies of stinging cells.

Most known deaths from jellyfish are attributed to the man-of-

war. Other jellyfish can inflict very painful stings as well. Avoid

the long tentacles of any jellyfish, even those washed up on the

beach and apparently dead.

11-43. The subtropical and tropical cone shells (Conidae species)

have a venomous harpoonlike barb. All have a fine netlike

pattern on the shell. A membrane may possibly obscure this

coloration. There are some very poisonous cone shells, even some

lethal ones in the Indian and Pacific oceans. Avoid any shell

shaped like an ice cream cone.

11-44. The auger shell or terebra (Terebridae species) are much

longer and thinner than the cone shells, but can be nearly as

deadly. They are found in temperate and tropical seas. Those in

the Indian and Pacific oceans have a more toxic venom in

their stinging barb. Do not eat these snails, as their flesh may

be poisonous.

11-12

Chapter 12

Field-Expedient Weapons, Tools,

and Equipment

As a soldier, you know the importance of proper

care and use of your weapons, tools, and

equipment. This is especially true of your knife.

You must always keep it sharp and ready to use.

A knife is your most valuable tool in a survival

situation. Imagine being in a survival situation

without any weapons, tools, or equipment except

your knife. It could happen! You might even be

without a knife. You would probably feel helpless,

but with the proper knowledge and skills, you can

easily improvise needed items.

In survival situations, you may have to fashion

any number and type of field-expedient tools and

equipment to survive. The need for an item must

outweigh the work involved in making it. You

should ask, “Is it necessary or just nice to have?”

Remember that undue haste makes waste.

Examples of tools and equipment that could make

your life much easier are ropes (Appendix G),

rucksacks, clothes, and nets.

Weapons serve a dual purpose. You use them to

obtain and prepare food and to provide self-

defense. A weapon can also give you a feeling of

security and provide you with the ability to hunt

on the move.

STAFFS

12-1. A staff should be one of the first tools you obtain. For

walking, it provides support and helps in ascending and

descending steep slopes. It provides some weapon’s capabilities if

used properly, especially against snakes and dogs. It should be

12-1

approximately the same height as you or at least eyebrow height.

The staff should be no larger than you can effectively wield when

tired and undernourished. It provides invaluable eye protection

when you are moving through heavy brush and thorns in

darkness.

CLUBS

12-2. You hold clubs; you do not throw them. However, the club

can extend your area of defense beyond your fingertips. It also

serves to increase the force of a blow without injuring yourself.

The three basic types of clubs are explained below.

SIMPLE CLUB

12-3. A simple club is a staff or branch. It must be short enough

for you to swing easily, but long enough and strong enough for

you to damage whatever you hit. Its diameter should fit

comfortably in your palm, but it should not be so thin as to allow

the club to break easily upon impact. A straight-grained

hardwood is best if you can find it.

WEIGHTED CLUB

12-4. A weighted club is any simple club with a weight on one

end. The weight may be a natural weight, such as a knot on the

wood, or something added, such as a stone lashed to the club.

12-5. To make a weighted club, first find a stone that has a shape

that will allow you to lash it securely to the club. A stone with a

slight hourglass shape works well. If you cannot find a suitably

shaped stone, then fashion a groove or channel into the stone by

“pecking,” repeatedly rapping the club stone with a smaller hard

stone.

12-6. Next, find a piece of wood that is the right length for you.

A straight-grained hardwood is best. The length of the wood

should feel comfortable in relation to the weight of the stone.

Finally, lash the stone to the handle using a technique shown in

Figure 12-1, page 12-3. The technique you use will depend on the

type of handle you choose.

12-2

SLING CLUB

12-7. A sling club is another type of weighted club. A weight

hangs 8 to 10 centimeters (3 to 4 inches) from the handle by a

strong, flexible lashing

(Figure

12-2). This type of club both

extends the user’s reach and multiplies the force of the blow.

Figure 12-2. Sling Club

EDGED WEAPONS

12-8. Knives, spear blades, and arrow points fall under the

category of edged weapons. The following paragraphs explain how

to make such weapons.

KNIVES

12-9. A knife has three basic functions. It can puncture, slash or

chop, and cut. A knife is also an invaluable tool used to construct

other survival items. You may find yourself without a knife or you

may need another type knife or a spear. To improvise you can use

stone, bone, wood, or metal to make a knife or spear blade.

Stone

12-10. To make a stone knife, you will need a sharp-edged piece of

stone, a chipping tool, and a flaking tool. A chipping tool is a light,

blunt-edged tool used to break off small pieces of stone. A flaking

12-4

12-11. Start making the knife by roughing out the desired shape

on your sharp piece of stone, using the chipping tool. Try to make

the knife fairly thin. Then, press the flaking tool against the

edges. This action will cause flakes to come off the opposite side of

the edge, leaving a razor-sharp edge. Use the flaking tool along

the entire length of the edge you need to sharpen. Eventually, you

will have a very, sharp cutting edge that you can use as a knife.

12-12. Lash the blade to some type of hilt (Figure 12-3, page 12-5).

NOTE: Stone will make an excellent puncturing tool and a good

chopping tool but will not hold a fine edge. Some stones such as

chert or flint can have very fine edges.

Bone

12-13. You can also use bone as an effective field-expedient edged

weapon. First, you will need to select a suitable bone. The larger

bones, such as the leg bone of a deer or another medium-sized

animal, are best. Lay the bone upon another hard object. Shatter

the bone by hitting it with a heavy object, such as a rock. From

the pieces, select a suitable pointed splinter. You can further

shape and sharpen this splinter by rubbing it on a rough-surfaced

rock. If the piece is too small to handle, you can still use it by

adding a handle to it. Select a suitable piece of hardwood for a

handle and lash the bone splinter securely to it.

NOTE: Use the bone knife only to puncture. It will not hold an

edge and it may flake or break if used differently.

Wood

12-14. You can make field-expedient edged weapons from wood.

Use these only to puncture. Bamboo is the only wood that will

hold a suitable edge. To make a knife from wood, first select a

straight-grained piece of hardwood that is about 30 centimeters

(12 inches) long and 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) in diameter. Fashion

the blade about 15 centimeters (6 inches) long. Shave it down to a

point. Use only the straight-grained portions of the wood. Do not

use the core or pith, as it would make a weak point.

12-15. Harden the point by a process known as fire hardening. If

a fire is possible, dry the blade portion over the fire slowly until

lightly charred. The drier the wood, the harder the point. After

lightly charring the blade portion, sharpen it on a coarse stone.

12-6

If using bamboo and after fashioning the blade, remove any other

wood to make the blade thinner from the inside portion of the

bamboo. Removal is done this way because bamboo’s hardest part

is its outer layer. Keep as much of this layer as possible to ensure

the hardest blade possible. When charring bamboo over a fire,

char only the inside wood; do not char the outside.

Metal

12-16. Metal is the best material to make field-expedient edged

weapons. Metal, when properly designed, can fulfill a knife’s

three uses—puncture, slice or chop, and cut. First, select a

suitable piece of metal, one that most resembles the desired end

product. Depending on the size and original shape, you can obtain

a point and cutting edge by rubbing the metal on a rough-

surfaced stone. If the metal is soft enough, you can hammer out

one edge while the metal is cold. Use a suitable flat, hard surface

as an anvil and a smaller, harder object of stone or metal as a

hammer to hammer out the edge. Make a knife handle from wood,

bone, or other material that will protect your hand.

Other Materials

12-17. You can use other materials to produce edged weapons.

Glass is a good alternative to an edged weapon or tool, if no other

material is available. Obtain a suitable piece in the same manner

as described for bone. Glass has a natural edge but is less durable

for heavy work. You can also sharpen plastic—if it is thick enough

or hard enough—into a durable point for puncturing.

SPEAR BLADES

12-18. To make spears, use the same procedures to make the

blade that you used to make a knife blade. Then select a shaft (a

straight sapling) 1.2 to 1.5 meters (4 to 5 feet) long. The length

should allow you to handle the spear easily and effectively. Attach

the spear blade to the shaft using lashing. The preferred method

is to split the handle, insert the blade, then wrap or lash it

tightly. You can use other materials without adding a blade.

Select a 1.2- to 1.5-meter (4- to 5-foot) long straight hardwood

shaft and shave one end to a point. If possible, fire-harden the

point. Bamboo also makes an excellent spear. Select a piece 1.2 to

12-7

1.5 meters (4 to 5 feet) long. Starting 8 to 10 centimeters (3 to 4

inches) back from the end used as the point, shave down the end

at a 45-degree angle (Figure 12-4). Remember, to sharpen the

edges, shave only the inner portion.

Figure 12-4. Bamboo Spear

ARROW POINTS

12-19. To make an arrow point, use the same procedures for

making a stone knife blade. Chert, flint, and shell-type stones are

best for arrow points. You can fashion bone like stone—by flaking.

You can make an efficient arrow point using broken glass.

OTHER EXPEDIENT WEAPONS

12-20. You can make other field-expedient weapons such as the

throwing stick, archery equipment, and the bola. The following

paragraphs explain how to make these.

THROWING STICK

12-21. The throwing stick, commonly known as the rabbit stick, is

very effective against small game

(squirrels, chipmunks, and

rabbits). The rabbit stick itself is a blunt stick, naturally curved

at about a 45-degree angle. Select a stick with the desired angle

from heavy hardwood such as oak. Shave off two opposite sides so

that the stick is flat like a boomerang (Figure 12-5, page 12-9).

You must practice the throwing technique for accuracy and speed.

First, align the target by extending the nonthrowing arm in line

with the mid- to lower-section of the target. Slowly and repeatedly

12-8

raise the throwing arm up and back until the throwing stick

crosses the back at about a 45-degree angle or is in line with the

nonthrowing hip. Bring the throwing arm forward until it is just

slightly above and parallel to the nonthrowing arm. This will be

the throwing stick’s release point. Practice slowly and repeatedly

to attain accuracy.

Figure 12-5. Rabbit Stick

ARCHERY EQUIPMENT

12-22. You can make a bow and arrow (Figure 12-6) from materials

available in your survival area. To make a bow, use the procedure

described in paragraphs 8-53 through 8-56 in Chapter 8.

Figure 12-6. Archery Equipment

12-9

12-23. While it may be relatively simple to make a bow and

arrow, it is not easy to use one. You must practice using it a long

time to be reasonably sure that you will hit your target. Also, a

field-expedient bow will not last very long before you have to

make a new one. For the time and effort involved, you may well

decide to use another type of field-expedient weapon.

BOLA

12-24. The bola is another field-expedient weapon that is easy to

make (Figure 12-7). It is especially effective for capturing running

game or low-flying fowl in a flock. To use the bola, hold it by the

center knot and twirl it above your head. Release the knot so that

the bola flies toward your target. When you release the bola, the

weighted cords will separate. These cords will wrap around and

immobilize the fowl or animal that you hit.

Figure 12-7. Bola

CORDAGE AND LASHING

12-25. Many materials are strong enough for use as cordage and

lashing. A number of natural and man-made materials are

available in a survival situation. For example, you can make a

cotton web belt much more useful by unraveling it. You can then

use the string for other purposes (fishing line, thread for sewing,

and lashing).

12-10

NATURAL CORDAGE SELECTION

12-26. Before making cordage, there are a few simple tests you

can do to determine you material’s suitability. First, pull on a

length of the material to test for strength. Next, twist it between

your fingers and roll the fibers together. If it withstands this

handling and does not snap apart, tie an overhand knot with the

fibers and gently tighten. If the knot does not break, the material

is usable. Figure 12-8 shows various methods of making cordage.

Figure 12-8. Making Lines From Plant Fibers

LASHING MATERIAL

12-27. The best natural material for lashing small objects is

sinew. You can make sinew from the tendons of large game, such

as deer. Remove the tendons from the game and dry them

completely. Smash the dried tendons so that they separate into

fibers. Moisten the fibers and twist them into a continuous

strand. If you need stronger lashing material, you can braid the

strands. When you use sinew for small lashings, you do not need

knots as the moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens when dry.

12-28. You can shred and braid plant fibers from the inner bark of

some trees to make cord. You can use the linden, elm, hickory,

white oak, mulberry, chestnut, and red and white cedar trees.

After you make the cord, test it to be sure it is strong enough for

your purpose. You can make these materials stronger by braiding

several strands together.

12-11

12-29. You can use rawhide for larger lashing jobs. Make rawhide

from the skins of medium or large game. After skinning the

animal, remove any excess fat and any pieces of meat from the

skin. Dry the skin completely. You do not need to stretch it as

long as there are no folds to trap moisture. You do not have to

remove the hair from the skin. Cut the skin while it is dry. Make

cuts about 6 millimeters (1/4 inch) wide. Start from the center of

the hide and make one continuous circular cut, working clockwise

to the hide’s outer edge. Soak the rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until

it is soft. Use it wet, stretching it as much as possible while

applying it. It will be strong and durable when it dries.

RUCKSACK CONSTRUCTION

12-30. The materials for constructing a rucksack or pack are almost

limitless. You can use wood, bamboo, rope, plant fiber, clothing,

animal skins, canvas, and many other materials to make a pack.

12-31. There are several construction techniques for rucksacks.

Many are very elaborate, but those that are simple and easy are

often the most readily made in a survival situation.

HORSESHOE PACK

12-32. This pack is simple to make and use and relatively

comfortable to carry over one shoulder. Lay available square-

shaped material, such as poncho, blanket, or canvas, flat on the

ground. Lay items on one edge of the material. Pad the hard

items. Roll the material (with the items) toward the opposite edge

and tie both ends securely. Add extra ties along the length of the

bundle. You can drape the pack over one shoulder with a line

connecting the two ends (Figure 12-9).

Figure 12-9. Horseshoe Pack

12-12

SQUARE PACK

12-33. This pack is easy to construct if rope or cordage is

available. Otherwise, you must first make cordage. To make this

pack, construct a square frame from bamboo, limbs, or sticks. Size

will vary for each person and the amount of equipment carried

(Figure 12-10).

Figure 12-10. Square Pack

CLOTHING AND INSULATION

12-34. You can use many materials for clothing and insulation.

Both man-made materials, such as parachutes, and natural

materials, such as skins and plant materials, are available and

offer significant protection.

12-13

PARACHUTE ASSEMBLY

12-35. Consider the entire parachute assembly as a resource. Use

every piece of material and hardware, to include the canopy,

suspension lines, connector snaps, and parachute harness. Before

disassembling the parachute, consider all of your survival

requirements and plan to use different portions of the parachute

accordingly. For example, consider shelter requirements, need for

a rucksack, and any additional clothing or insulation needs.

ANIMAL SKINS

12-36. The selection of animal skins in a survival situation will

most often be limited to what you manage to trap or hunt.

However, if there is an abundance of wildlife, select the hides of

larger animals with heavier coats and large fat content. Do not

use the skins of infected or diseased animals if possible. Since

they live in the wild, animals are carriers of pests such as ticks,

lice, and fleas. Because of these pests, use water to thoroughly

clean any skin obtained from any animal. If water is not

available, at least shake out the skin thoroughly. As with

rawhide, lay out the skin and remove all fat and meat. Dry the

skin completely. Use the hindquarter joint areas to make shoes,

mittens, or socks. Wear the hide with the fur to the inside for its

insulating factor.

PLANT FIBERS

12-37. Several plants are sources of insulation from cold. Cattail

is a marshland plant found along lakes, ponds, and the

backwaters of rivers. The fuzz on the tops of the stalks forms dead

air spaces and makes a good down-like insulation when placed

between two pieces of material. Milkweed has pollenlike seeds

that act as good insulation. The husk fibers from coconuts are

very good for weaving ropes and, when dried, make excellent

tinder and insulation.

COOKING AND EATING UTENSILS

12-38. You can use many materials to make equipment for the

cooking, eating, and storing of food. Usually all materials can

serve some type of purpose when in a survival situation.

12-14

BOWLS

12-39. Use wood, bone, horn, bark, or other similar material to

make bowls. To make wooden bowls, use a hollowed out piece of

wood that will hold your food and enough water to cook it in.

Hang the wooden container over the fire and add hot rocks to the

water and food. Remove the rocks as they cool and add more hot

rocks until your food is cooked.

CAUTION

Do not use rocks with air pockets, such as limestone and

sandstone. They may explode while heating in the fire.

12-40. You can also use this method with containers made of bark

or leaves. However, these containers will burn above the

waterline unless you keep them moist or keep the fire low.

12-41. A section of bamboo also works very well for cooking. Be

sure you cut out a section between two sealed joints (Figure 12-11).

Figure 12-11. Containers for Boiling Food

12-15

CAUTION

A sealed section of bamboo will explode if heated

because of trapped air and water in the section.

FORKS, KNIVES, AND SPOONS

12-42. Carve forks, knives, and spoons from nonresinous woods so

that you do not get a wood resin aftertaste or do not taint the

food. Nonresinous woods include oak, birch, and other hardwood

trees.

NOTE: Do not use those trees that secrete a syrup or resinlike

liquid on the bark or when cut.

POTS

12-43. You can make pots from turtle shells or wood. As described

with bowls, using hot rocks in a hollowed out piece of wood is very

effective. Bamboo is the best wood for making cooking containers.

12-44. To use turtle shells, first thoroughly boil the upper portion

of the shell. Then use it to heat food and water over a flame

(Figure 12-11, page 12-15).

WATER BOTTLES

12-45. Make water bottles from the stomachs of larger animals.

Thoroughly flush the stomach out with water, then tie off the

bottom. Leave the top open, with some means of fastening

it closed.

12-16

Chapter 13

Desert Survival

To survive and evade in arid or desert areas, you

must understand and prepare for the

environment you will face. You must determine

your equipment needs, the tactics you will use,

and how the environment will affect you and your

tactics. Your survival will depend upon your

knowledge of the terrain, basic climatic elements,

your ability to cope with these elements, and your

will to survive.

TERRAIN

13-1. Most arid areas have several types of terrain. The five basic

desert terrain types are—

• Mountainous (high altitude).

• Rocky plateau.

• Sand dunes.

• Salt marshes.

• Broken, dissected terrain (“gebel” or “wadi”).

13-2. Desert terrain makes movement difficult and demanding.

Land navigation will be extremely difficult as there may be very

few landmarks. Cover and concealment may be very limited;

therefore, the threat of exposure to the enemy remains constant.

MOUNTAIN DESERTS

13-3. Scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains

separated by dry, flat basins characterize mountain deserts. High

ground may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas to several

thousand meters above sea level. Most of the infrequent rainfall

occurs on high ground and runs off rapidly in the form of flash

floods. These floodwaters erode deep gullies and ravines and

deposit sand and gravel around the edges of the basins. Water

rapidly evaporates, leaving the land as barren as before, although

13-1

there may be short-lived vegetation. If enough water enters the

basin to compensate for the rate of evaporation, shallow lakes

may develop, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah or the Dead

Sea. Most of these lakes have a high salt content.

ROCKY PLATEAU DESERTS

13-4. Rocky plateau deserts have relatively slight relief

interspersed with extensive flat areas with quantities of solid or

broken rock at or near the surface. There may be steep-walled,

eroded valleys, known as wadis in the Middle East and arroyos or

canyons in the United States and Mexico. Although their flat

bottoms may be superficially attractive as assembly areas, the

narrower valleys can be extremely dangerous to men and

material due to flash flooding after rains. The Golan Heights is an

example of a rocky plateau desert.

SANDY OR DUNE DESERTS

13-5. Sandy or dune deserts are extensive flat areas covered with

sand or gravel. “Flat” is a relative term, as some areas may

contain sand dunes that are over 300 meters (1,000 feet) high and

16 to 24 kilometers (10 to 15 miles) long. Trafficability in such

terrain will depend on the windward or leeward slope of the

dunes and the texture of the sand. However, other areas may be

flat for 3,000 meters (10,000 feet) and more. Plant life may vary

from none to scrub over 2 meters (7 feet) high. Examples of this

type of desert include the edges of the Sahara, the empty quarter

of the Arabian Desert, areas of California and New Mexico, and

the Kalahari in South Africa.

SALT MARSHES

13-6. Salt marshes are flat, desolate areas, sometimes studded

with clumps of grass but devoid of other vegetation. They occur in

arid areas where rainwater has collected, evaporated, and left

large deposits of alkali salts and water with a high salt

concentration. The water is so salty it is undrinkable. A crust that

may be 2.5 to 30 centimeters (1 to 12 inches) thick forms over the

saltwater.

13-7. In arid areas, there are salt marshes hundreds of

kilometers square. These areas usually support many insects,

most of which bite. Avoid salt marshes. This type of terrain is

13-2

highly corrosive to boots, clothing, and skin. A good example is

the Shatt al Arab waterway along the Iran-Iraq border.

BROKEN TERRAIN

13-8. All arid areas contain broken or highly dissected terrain.

Rainstorms that erode soft sand and carve out canyons form this

terrain. A wadi may range from 3 meters (10 feet) wide and 2

meters (7 feet) deep to several hundred meters wide and deep.

The direction it takes varies as much as its width and depth. It

twists and turns and forms a mazelike pattern. A wadi will give

you good cover and concealment, but do not try to move through it

because it is very difficult terrain to negotiate.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

13-9. Surviving and evading the enemy in an arid area depends

on what you know and how prepared you are for the

environmental conditions you will face. Determine what

equipment you will need, the tactics you will use, and the

environment’s impact on them and you.

13-10. In a desert area there are seven environmental factors that

you must consider—

• Low rainfall.

• Intense sunlight and heat.

• Wide temperature range.

• Sparse vegetation.

• High mineral content near ground surface.

• Sandstorms.

• Mirages.

LOW RAINFALL

13-11. Low rainfall is the most obvious environmental factor in an

arid area. Some desert areas receive less than 10 centimeters (4

inches) of rain annually, and this rain comes in brief torrents that

quickly run off the ground surface. You cannot survive long

without water in high desert temperatures. In a desert survival

situation, you must first consider the amount of water you have

and other water sources.

13-3

FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002) - page 7