FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002)

Means of

Sources of

Obtaining and/or

Environment

Water

Making Potable

Remarks

Desert (cont)

Cacti

Cut off the top of

Without a machete, cutting into a

a barrel cactus

cactus is difficult and takes time

and mash or

since you must get past the long,

squeeze the pulp.

strong spines and cut through the

tough rind.

CAUTION: Do

not eat pulp.

Place pulp in

mouth, suck out

juice, and

discard pulp.

Depressions or

Periodic rainfall may collect in pools,

holes in rocks

seep into fissures, or collect in holes

in rocks.

Fissures in rock

Insert flexible

tubing and siphon

water. If fissure is

large enough, you

can lower a

container into it.

Porous rock

Insert flexible

tubing and siphon

water.

Condensation on

Use cloth to

Extreme temperature variations

metal

absorb water,

between night and day may cause

then wring water

condensation on metal surfaces.

from cloth.

Following are signs to watch for in

the desert to help you find water:

• All trails lead to water. You

should follow in the direction in

which the trails converge. Signs of

camps, campfire ashes,

animal droppings, and trampled

terrain may mark trails.

• Flocks of birds will circle over

water holes. Some birds fly to

water holes at dawn and sunset.

Their flight at these times is

usually fast and close to the

ground. Bird tracks or chirping

sounds in the evening or early

morning sometimes indicate that

water is nearby.

Figure 6-1. Water Sources in Different Environments (Continued)

6-2. If you do not have a reliable source to replenish your water

supply, stay alert for ways in which your environment can help you.

6-3

NOTE: DO NOT substitute the fluids listed in Figure 6-2 for water.

Fluid

Remarks

Alcoholic beverages

Dehydrate the body and cloud judgment.

Contains harmful body wastes. Is about 2

Urine

percent salt.

Is salty and considered a food; therefore,

Blood

requires additional body fluids to digest.

May transmit disease.

Is about 4 percent salt. It takes about 2

liters of body fluids to rid the body of

Seawater

waste from 1 liter of seawater. Therefore,

by drinking seawater you deplete your

body’s water supply, which can cause

death.

Figure 6-2. The Effects of Substitute Fluids

6-3. Heavy dew can provide water. Tie rags or tufts of fine grass

around your ankles and walk through dew-covered grass before

sunrise. As the rags or grass tufts absorb the dew, wring the

water into a container. Repeat the process until you have a supply

of water or until the dew is gone. Australian natives sometimes

mop up as much as 1 liter an hour this way.

6-4. Bees or ants going into a hole in a tree may point to a

water-filled hole. Siphon the water with plastic tubing or scoop it

up with an improvised dipper. You can also stuff cloth in the hole

to absorb the water and then wring it from the cloth.

6-5. Water sometimes gathers in tree crotches or rock crevices.

Use the above procedures to get the water. In arid areas, bird

droppings around a crack in the rocks may indicate water in or

near the crack.

6-6. Green bamboo thickets are an excellent source of fresh

water. Water from green bamboo is clear and odorless. To get the

water, bend a green bamboo stalk, tie it down, and cut off the top

(Figure 6-3, page 6-5). The water will drip freely during the night.

Old, cracked bamboo may also contain water.

6-4

Figure 6-3. Water From Green Bamboo

CAUTION

Purify the water before drinking it.

6-7. Wherever you find banana trees, plantain trees, or

sugarcane, you can get water. Cut down the tree, leaving about a

30-centimeter (12-inch) stump, and scoop out the center of the

stump so that the hollow is bowl-shaped. Water from the roots

will immediately start to fill the hollow. The first three fillings of

water will be bitter, but succeeding fillings will be palatable. The

stump (Figure 6-4, page 6-6) will supply water for up to 4 days.

Be sure to cover it to keep out insects.

6-5

Figure 6-5. Water From a Vine

6-9. The milk from young, green (unripe) coconuts is a good

thirst quencher. However, the milk from mature, brown, coconuts

contains an oil that acts as a laxative. Drink in moderation only.

CAUTION

Do not drink the liquid if it is sticky, milky, or bitter

tasting.

6-10. In the American tropics you may find large trees whose

branches support air plants. These air plants may hold a

considerable amount of rainwater in their overlapping, thickly

growing leaves. Strain the water through a cloth to remove

insects and debris.

6-11. You can get water from plants with moist pulpy centers.

Cut off a section of the plant and squeeze or smash the pulp so

that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.

6-12. Plant roots may provide water. Dig or pry the roots out of

the ground, cut them into short pieces, and smash the pulp so

that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.

6-7

6-13. Fleshy leaves, stems, or stalks, such as bamboo, contain

water. Cut or notch the stalks at the base of a joint to drain out

the liquid.

6-14. The following trees can also provide water:

• Palms. The buri, coconut, sugar, rattan, and nips contain

liquid. Bruise a lower frond and pull it down so the tree

will “bleed” at the injury.

• Traveler’s tree. Found in Madagascar, this tree has a

cuplike sheath at the base of its leaves in which water

collects.

• Umbrella tree. The leaf bases and roots of this tree of

western tropical Africa can provide water.

• Baobab tree. This tree of the sandy plains of northern

Australia and Africa collects water in its bottlelike trunk

during the wet season. Frequently, you can find clear,

fresh water in these trees after weeks of dry weather.

CAUTION

Do not keep the sap from plants longer than 24 hours. It

begins fermenting, becoming dangerous as a water

source.

STILL CONSTRUCTION

6-15. You can use stills in various areas of the world. They draw

moisture from the ground and from plant material. You need

certain materials to build a still, and you need time to let it collect

the water. It takes about 24 hours to get 0.5 to 1 liter of water.

ABOVEGROUND STILLS

6-16. You can construct two types of aboveground stills. To make

the vegetation bag still, you need a sunny slope on which to

place the still, a clear plastic bag, green leafy vegetation, and a

small rock (Figure 6-6, page 6-9).

6-8

Figure 6-6. Vegetation Bag Still

6-17. To make the still, you should—

• Fill the bag with air by turning the opening into the breeze

or by “scooping” air into the bag.

• Fill the plastic bag one-half to three-fourths full of green

leafy vegetation. Be sure to remove all hard sticks or sharp

spines that might puncture the bag.

CAUTION

Do not use poisonous vegetation. It will provide

poisonous liquid.

• Place a small rock or similar item in the bag.

• Close the bag and tie the mouth securely as close to the

end of the bag as possible to keep the maximum amount of

air space. If you have a piece of tubing, a small straw, or a

hollow reed, insert one end in the mouth of the bag before

you tie it securely. Then tie off or plug the tubing so that

6-9

air will not escape. This tubing will allow you to drain out

condensed water without untying the bag.

• Place the bag, mouth downhill, on a slope in full sunlight.

Position the mouth of the bag slightly higher than the low

point in the bag.

• Settle the bag in place so that the rock works itself into the

low point in the bag.

6-18. To get the condensed water from the still, loosen the tie

around the bag’s mouth and tip the bag so that the water

collected around the rock will drain out. Then retie the mouth

securely and reposition the still to allow further condensation.

6-19. Change the vegetation in the bag after extracting most of

the water from it. This will ensure maximum output of water.

6-20. Making a transpiration bag still is similar to the

vegetation bag, only easier. Simply tie the plastic bag over a leafy

tree limb with a tube inserted, and tie the mouth of the bag off

tightly around the branch to form an airtight seal. Tie the end of

the limb so that it hangs below the level of the mouth of the bag.

The water will collect there (Figure 6-7).

6-21. The same limb may be used for 3 to 5 days without causing

long-term harm to the limb. It will heal itself within a few hours

of removing the bag.

Figure 6-7. Water Transpiration Bag

6-10

BELOWGROUND STILL

6-22. To make a belowground still, you need a digging tool, a

container, a clear plastic sheet, a drinking tube, and a rock

(Figure 6-8).

Figure 6-8. Belowground Still

6-23. Select a site where you believe the soil will contain moisture

(such as a dry streambed or a low spot where rainwater has

collected). The soil at this site should be easy to dig, and sunlight

must hit the site most of the day.

6-24. To construct the still, you should—

• Dig a bowl-shaped hole about 1 meter (3 feet) across and

60 centimeters (24 inches) deep.

• Dig a sump in the center of the hole. The sump’s depth and

perimeter will depend on the size of the container that you

have to place in it. The bottom of the sump should allow

the container to stand upright.

• Anchor the tubing to the container’s bottom by forming a

loose overhand knot in the tubing.

• Place the container upright in the sump.

6-11

• Extend the unanchored end of the tubing up, over, and

beyond the lip of the hole.

• Place the plastic sheet over the hole, covering its edges

with soil to hold it in place.

• Place a rock in the center of the plastic sheet.

• Lower the plastic sheet into the hole until it is about 40

centimeters (16 inches) below ground level. It now forms

an inverted cone with the rock at its apex. Make sure that

the cone’s apex is directly over your container. Also make

sure the plastic cone does not touch the sides of the hole

because the earth will absorb the condensed water.

• Put more soil on the edges of the plastic to hold it securely

in place and to prevent the loss of moisture.

• Plug the tube when not in use to keep the moisture from

evaporating and to keep insects out.

6-25. You can drink water without disturbing the still by using

the tube as a straw. By opening the still, you release the moist,

warm air that has accumulated.

6-26. You may want to use plants in the hole as a moisture

source. If so, dig out additional soil from the sides of the hole to

form a slope on which to place the plants. Then proceed as above.

6-27. If polluted water is your only moisture source, dig a small

trough outside the hole about 25 centimeters (10 inches) from the

still’s lip

(Figure

6-9, page

6-13). Dig the trough about

centimeters (10 inches) deep and 8 centimeters (3 inches) wide.

Pour the polluted water in the trough. Be sure you do not spill

any polluted water around the rim of the hole where the plastic

sheet touches the soil. The trough holds the polluted water and

the soil filters it as the still draws it. The water then condenses

on the plastic and drains into the container. This process works

extremely well when your only water source is salt water.

6-28. You will need at least three stills to meet your individual

daily water intake needs. In comparison to the belowground still

and the water transpiration bag still, the vegetation bag produces

the best yield of water.

6-12

Figure 6-9. Belowground Still to Get Potable Water

From Polluted Water

WATER PURIFICATION

6-29. Rainwater collected in clean containers or in plants is

usually safe for drinking. However, purify water from lakes,

ponds, swamps, springs, or streams, especially the water near

human settlements or in the tropics.

6-30. When possible, purify all water you get from vegetation or

from the ground by boiling or using iodine or chlorine. After

purifying a canteen of water, you must partially unscrew the cap

and turn the canteen upside down to rinse unpurified water from

the threads of the canteen where your mouth touches.

6-31. Purify water by the following methods:

• Use water purification tablets.

(Follow the directions

provided.)

• Place 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in a canteen

full of clear water. If the canteen is full of cloudy or cold

water, use 10 drops. (Let the canteen of water stand for 30

minutes before drinking.)

• Use 2 drops of 10 percent (military strength) povidone-

iodine or 1 percent titrated povidone-iodine. The civilian

6-13

equivalent is usually 2 percent strength, so 10 drops will

be needed. Let stand for 30 minutes. If the water is cold

and clear, wait 60 minutes. If it’s very cold or cloudy, add 4

drops and wait 60 minutes.

•

Place

2 drops of chlorine bleach

(5.25 percent sodium

hypochlorite) in a canteen of water. Let stand 30 minutes.

If the water is cold or cloudy, wait 60 minutes. Remember

that not all bleach is the same around the world; check the

available level of sodium hypochlorite.

•

Use potassium permanganate, commonly marketed as

Condy’s Crystals, for a number of applications, including

emergency disinfection of water. The crystals are of a

nonuniform size, so you must judge the actual dosage by

the color of the water after adding the crystals. Add three

small crystals to 1 liter (1 quart) of water. If the water

turns a bright pink after waiting 30 minutes, the water is

considered purified. If the water turns a dark pink, there is

too much potassium permanganate to drink safely. Either

add more water to dilute the mixture or save it for use as

an antiseptic solution. If the water becomes a full red, like

the color of cranberry juice, the solution may be used as an

antifungal solution.

•

Boil your drinking water. This is the safest method of

purifying your drinking water. By achieving a rolling boil,

you can ensure that you are destroying all living

waterborne pathogens.

6-32. By drinking nonpotable water you may contract diseases or

swallow organisms that can harm you and may easily lead to

potentially fatal waterborne illnesses.

6-33. Two of the most prevalent pathogens found in most water

sources throughout the world are—

• Giardia, which causes Giardiasis

(beaver fever). It is

characterized by an explosive, watery diarrhea

accompanied by severe cramps lasting 7 to 14 days.

• Cryptosporidium, which causes Cryptosporidiosis. It is

much like Giardiasis, only more severe and prolonged, and

there is no known cure but time. Diarrhea may be mild

and can last from 3 days to 2 weeks.

6-14

NOTE: The only effective means of neutralizing Cryptosporidium

is by boiling or by using a commercial microfilter or reverse-

osmosis filtration system. Chemical disinfectants such as iodine

tablets or bleach have not shown to be 100 percent effective in

eliminating Cryptosporidium.

6-34. Examples of other diseases or organisms are—

• Dysentery. You may experience severe, prolonged diarrhea

with bloody stools, fever, and weakness.

• Cholera and typhoid. You may be susceptible to these

diseases regardless of inoculations. Cholera can cause

profuse, watery diarrhea, vomiting, and leg cramps.

Typhoid symptoms include fever, headache, loss of

appetite, constipation, and bleeding in the bowel.

• Hepatitis A. Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain,

jaundice, and dark urine. This infection can spread

through close person-to-person contact or ingestion of

contaminated water or food.

• Flukes. Stagnant, polluted water—especially in tropical

areas—often contains blood flukes. If you swallow flukes,

they will bore into the bloodstream, live as parasites, and

cause disease.

• Leeches. If you swallow a leech, it can hook onto the throat

passage or inside the nose. It will suck blood, create a

wound, and move to another area. Each bleeding wound

may become infected.

WATER FILTRATION DEVICES

6-35. If the water you find is also muddy, stagnant, and foul-

smelling, you can clear the water—

• By placing it in a container and letting it stand for 12

hours.

• By pouring it through a filtering system.

NOTE: These procedures only clear the water and make it more

palatable. You will have to purify it.

6-36. To make a filtering system, place several centimeters or

layers of filtering material such as sand, crushed rock, charcoal,

6-15

Chapter 7

Firecraft

In many survival situations, the ability to start a

fire can make the difference between living and

dying. Fire can fulfill many needs. It can provide

warmth and comfort. It not only cooks and

preserves food, it also provides warmth in the

form of heated food that saves calories our body

normally uses to produce body heat. You can use

fire to purify water, sterilize bandages, signal for

rescue, and provide protection from animals. It

can be a psychological boost by providing peace of

mind and companionship. You can also use fire to

produce tools and weapons.

Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy can

detect the smoke and light it produces. It can

cause forest fires or destroy essential equipment.

Fire can also cause burns and carbon monoxide

poisoning when used in shelters.

Weigh your need for fire against your need to

avoid enemy detection.

BASIC FIRE PRINCIPLES

7-1. To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic principles of

a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not burn directly. When

you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, combined

with oxygen in the air, burns.

7-2. Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very

important in correctly constructing and maintaining a fire. The

three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you

remove any of these, the fire will go out. The correct ratio of these

components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest

capability. The only way to learn this ratio is to practice.

7-1

SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION

7-3. You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use.

Before building a fire consider—

• The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.

• The materials and tools available.

• Time; how much time do you have?

• Need; why do you need a fire?

• Security; how close is the enemy?

7-4. Look for a dry spot that—

• Is protected from the wind.

• Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).

• Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.

• Has a supply of wood or other fuel available. (Figure 7-4,

pages 7-5 and 7-6, lists types of material you can use.)

7-5. If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the

brush and scrape the surface soil from the spot you have selected.

Clear a circle at least 1 meter (3 feet) in diameter so there is little

chance of the fire spreading.

7-6. If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks. This

wall will help to reflect or direct the heat where you want it

(Figure 7-1, page 7-3). It will also reduce flying sparks and cut

down on the amount of wind blowing into the fire. However, you

will need enough wind to keep the fire burning.

CAUTION

Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode

when heated.

7-2

FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION

7-9. You need three types of materials (Figure 7-4, pages 7-5 and

7-6) to build a fire.

7-10. Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat—a spark

starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely dry to be sure just a

spark will ignite it. If you have a device that generates only

sparks, charred cloth will be almost essential. It holds a spark for

long periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to

generate a small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating

cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn. Once it is

black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry.

Prepare this cloth well in advance of any survival situation. Add

it to your individual survival kit. Other impromptu items could be

alcohol pads or petroleum jelly gauze.

7-11. Kindling is readily combustible material that you add to the

burning tinder. Again, this material should be absolutely dry to

ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire’s temperature

so that it will ignite less combustible material.

7-12. Fuel is less combustible material that burns slowly and

steadily once ignited.

Tinder

Kindling

Fuel

• Birch bark.

• Small twigs.

• Dry, standing

• Shredded inner bark from

• Small strips of wood.

wood and dry,

cedar, chestnut, red elm

dead branches.

• Lighter knot from pine tree

trees.

stumps with a heavy

• Dry inside (heart)

• Fine wood shavings.

concentration of resin.

of fallen tree

• Dead grass, ferns, moss,

• Heavy cardboard.

trunks and large

fungi.

branches.

• Pieces of wood removed from

• Straw.

the inside of larger pieces.

• Green wood that

• Sawdust.

• Wood that has been doused

is finely split.

• Very fine pitchwood

with highly flammable

• Dry grasses

scrapings.

materials, such as gasoline,

twisted into

oil, or wax.

bunches.

• Dead evergreen needles.

Figure 7-4. Materials for Building Fires

7-5

Tinder

Kindling

Fuel

• Punk (the completely

• Peat dry enough

rotted portions of dead

to burn (this may

logs or trees).

be found at the

• Evergreen tree knots.

top of undercut

banks).

• Bird down (fine feathers).

• Down seed heads

• Dried animal

(milkweed, dry cattails,

dung.

bulrush, or thistle).

• Animal fats.

• Fine, dried vegetable

• Coal, oil shale, or

fibers.

oil lying on the

• Spongy threads of dead

surface.

puffball.

• Dead palm leaves.

• Skinlike membrane lining

bamboo.

• Lint from pockets and

seams.

• Charred cloth.

• Waxed paper.

• Other bamboo shavings.

• Gunpowder.

• Cotton.

Figure 7-4. Materials for Building Fires (Continued)

HOW TO BUILD A FIRE

7-13. There are several methods for laying a fire and each one

has advantages. The situation you are in will determine which of

the following fires to use.

TEPEE

7-14. To make a tepee fire (Figure 7-5, page 7-7), arrange the

tinder and a few sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee or cone.

Light the center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall

inward, feeding the fire. This type of fire burns well even with

wet wood.

7-6

LEAN-TO

7-15. To lay a lean-to fire (Figure 7-5), push a green stick into the

ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of the stick in the direction

of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this lean-to stick. Lean

pieces of kindling against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As the

kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.

CROSS-DITCH

7-16. To use the cross-ditch method (Figure 7-5), scratch a cross

about 30 centimeters (12 inches) in size in the ground. Dig the

cross 7.5 centimeters (about 3 inches) deep. Put a large wad of

tinder in the middle of the cross. Build a kindling pyramid above

the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the tinder

to provide a draft.

PYRAMID

7-17. To lay the pyramid fire (Figure 7-5), place two small logs or

branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer of small logs

across the parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of logs,

each layer smaller than and at a right angle to the layer below it.

Make a starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire

burns, it will ignite the logs below it. This gives you a fire that

burns downward, requiring no attention during the night.

Figure 7-5. Methods for Laying Fires

7-7

7-18. There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite

effective. Your situation and the material available in the area

may make another method more suitable.

HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE

7-19. Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure you

lay the tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your fire will burn as

long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to

start the tinder burning. They fall into two categories: modern

methods and primitive methods.

MODERN METHODS

7-20. Modern igniters use modern devices. These are items that

we normally think of to start a fire.

Matches

7-21. Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them

in a waterproof container along with a dependable striker pad.

Convex Lens

7-22. Use this method (Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny days.

The lens can come from binoculars, a camera, telescopic sights, or

magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun’s rays

on the tinder. Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder

begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into a flame and

apply it to the fire lay.

Figure 7-6. Lens Method

7-8

Metal Match

7-23. Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion

exposed. Place the tip of the metal match on the dry leaf, holding

the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your

knife against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will

hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as

above.

Battery

7-24. Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method

depends on the type of battery available. Attach a wire to each

terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the

tinder so the sparks will ignite it.

Gunpowder

7-25. Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If

so, carefully extract the bullet from the shell casing by moving the

bullet back and forth. Use the gunpowder as tinder. Discard the

casing and primers. A spark will ignite the powder.

NOTE: Be extremely careful during this operation as the primers

are still sensitive and even a small pile of gunpowder can give

surprising results.

PRIMITIVE METHODS

7-26. Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early

ancestors. They can be time-consuming, which requires you to be

patient and persistent.

Flint and Steel

7-27. The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive

methods to use. The flint and steel method is the most reliable of

the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-

edged rock with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not

produce a good spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist

and practice. When the tinder catches a spark, blow on it. The

spark will spread and burst into flames.

7-9

Fire-Plow

7-28. The fire-plow (Figure 7-7) is a friction method of ignition. To

use this method, cut a straight groove in a softwood base and

plow the blunt tip of a hardwood shaft up and down the groove.

The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood

fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the

friction ignites the wood particles.

Figure 7-7. Fire-Plow

Bow and Drill

7-29. The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure

7-8, page 7-11) is simple, but you must exert much effort and be

persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use

this method:

• Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of

hardwood with a slight depression in one side. Use it to

hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure.

• Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood

stick about 2 centimeters (3/4 inch) in diameter and 25

centimeters (10 inches) long. The top end is round and the

low end blunt (to produce more friction).

7-10

• Fire board. Although any board may be used, a seasoned

softwood board about 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) thick and 10

centimeters (4 inches) wide is preferable. Cut a depression

about 2 centimeters (3/4 inch) from the edge on one side of

the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from

the edge of the board to the depression.

• Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about

2.5

centimeters (3/4 inch) in diameter with a bowstring. The

type of wood is not important. The bowstring can be any

type of cordage. Tie the bowstring from one end of the bow

to the other, without any slack.

Figure 7-8. Bow and Drill

7-30. To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then

place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped cut in the fire board.

Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill

and place the drill in the precut depression on the fire board.

Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it

in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and

forth to twirl the drill (Figure 7-8). Once you have established a

7-11

smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow

faster. This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder,

causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it ignites.

7-31. Primitive fire-building methods are exhausting and require

practice to ensure success. If your survival situation requires the

use of primitive methods, remember the following hints to help

you construct and maintain the fire:

• If possible, use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel.

• Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.

• Add insect repellent to the tinder.

• Keep the firewood dry.

• Dry damp firewood near the fire.

• Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.

• Carry lighted punk, when possible.

• Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.

• Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to

be dry but generally doesn’t provide enough friction.

7-12

Chapter 8

Food Procurement

One of man’s most urgent requirements is food.

In contemplating virtually any hypothetical

survival situation, the mind immediately turns

to thoughts of food. Unless the situation occurs in

an arid environment, even water, which is more

important to maintaining body functions, will

usually follow food in our initial thoughts. The

survivor must remember that the three

essentials of survival—water, food, and shelter—

are prioritized according to the estimate of the

actual situation. This estimate must not only be

timely but accurate as well. We can live for

weeks without food but it may take days or

weeks to determine what is safe to eat and to

trap animals in the area. Therefore, you need to

begin food gathering in the earliest stages of

survival as your endurance will decrease daily.

Some situations may well dictate that shelter

precede both food and water.

ANIMALS FOR FOOD

8-1. Unless you have the chance to take large game, concentrate

your efforts on the smaller animals. They are more abundant and

easier to prepare. You need not know all the animal species that

are suitable as food; relatively few are poisonous, and they make

a smaller list to remember. However, it is important to learn the

habits and behavioral patterns of classes of animals. For example,

animals that are excellent choices for trapping, those that inhabit

a particular range and occupy a den or nest, those that have

somewhat fixed feeding areas, and those that have trails leading

from one area to another. Larger, herding animals, such as elk or

caribou, roam vast areas and are somewhat more difficult to trap.

Also, you must understand the food choices of a particular species

to select the proper bait.

8-1

8-2. You can, with relatively few exceptions, eat anything that

crawls, swims, walks, or flies. You must first overcome your

natural aversion to a particular food source. Historically, people

in starvation situations have resorted to eating everything

imaginable for nourishment. A person who ignores an otherwise

healthy food source due to a personal bias, or because he feels it is

unappetizing, is risking his own survival. Although it may prove

difficult at first, you must eat what is available to maintain your

health. Some classes of animals and insects may be eaten raw if

necessary, but you should, if possible, thoroughly cook all food

sources whenever possible to avoid illness.

INSECTS

8-3. The most abundant and easily caught life-form on earth are

insects. Many insects provide 65 to 80 percent protein compared

to 20 percent for beef. This fact makes insects an important, if not

overly appetizing, food source. Insects to avoid include all adults

that sting or bite, hairy or brightly colored insects, and

caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odor. Also avoid

spiders and common disease carriers such as ticks, flies, and

mosquitoes.

8-4. Rotting logs lying on the ground are excellent places to look

for a variety of insects including ants, termites, beetles, and

grubs, which are beetle larvae. Do not overlook insect nests on or

in the ground. Grassy areas, such as fields, are good areas to

search because the insects are easily seen. Stones, boards, or

other materials lying on the ground provide the insects with good

nesting sites. Check these sites. Insect larvae are also edible.

Insects that have a hard outer shell such as beetles and

grasshoppers will have parasites. Cook them before eating.

Remove any wings and barbed legs also. You can eat most soft-

shelled insects raw. The taste varies from one species to another.

Wood grubs are bland, but some species of ants store honey in

their bodies, giving them a sweet taste. You can grind a collection

of insects into a paste. You can mix them with edible vegetation.

You can cook them to improve their taste.

WORMS

8-5. Worms (Annelidea) are an excellent protein source. Dig for

them in damp humus soil and in the rootball of grass clumps, or

watch for them on the ground after a rain. After capturing them,

8-2

drop them into clean, potable water for about 15 minutes. The

worms will naturally purge or wash themselves out, after which

you can eat them raw.

CRUSTACEANS

8-6. Freshwater shrimp range in size from 0.25 centimeter (1/16

inch) up to 2.5 centimeters (1 inch). They can form rather large

colonies in mats of floating algae or in mud bottoms of ponds and

lakes.

8-7. Crayfish are akin to marine lobsters and crabs. You can

distinguish them by their hard exoskeleton and five pairs of legs,

the front pair having oversized pincers. Crayfish are active at

night, but you can locate them in the daytime by looking under

and around stones in streams. You can also find them by looking

in the soft mud near the chimney-like breathing holes of their

nests. You can catch crayfish by tying bits of offal or internal

organs to a string. When the crayfish grabs the bait, pull it to

shore before it has a chance to release the bait.

8-8. You can find saltwater lobsters, crabs, and shrimp from the

surf’s edge out to water 10 meters (33 feet) deep. Shrimp may

come to a light at night where you can scoop them up with a net.

You can catch lobsters and crabs with a baited trap or a baited

hook. Crabs will come to bait placed at the edge of the surf, where

you can trap or net them. Lobsters and crabs are nocturnal and

caught best at night.

NOTE: You must cook all freshwater crustaceans, mollusks, and

fish. Fresh water tends to harbor many dangerous organisms (see

Chapter

6), animal and human contaminants, and possibly

agricultural and industrial pollutants.

MOLLUSKS

8-9. This class includes octopuses and freshwater and saltwater

shellfish such as snails, clams, mussels, bivalves, barnacles,

periwinkles, chitons, and sea urchins (Figure 8-1, page 8-4). You

find bivalves similar to our freshwater mussel and terrestrial and

aquatic snails worldwide under all water conditions.

8-3

FM 3-05.70 Field Manual Survival (17 May 2002) - page 4