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Some examples of legislation concerning geographical names authorities
Slovenia first appointed its Commission for the Standardization of Geographical Names
in
1986; the most recent reappointment was in February 2001.7 The primary task of the
Commission is to direct and harmonize the work in the field of standardization of geographical
names in Slovenia and to resolve problems arising. This entails defining the written forms of
names and making the use of the names uniform both inside and outside the country. The
Commission falls under the authority of the Ministry of Environment, Spatial Planning and
Energy in Ljubljana, and currently consists of some 16 members from departments responsible
for surveying, geodesy, mapping, geography, standards, statistics, domestic affairs and foreign
affairs, in addition to representation from academia.
Madagascar’s National Committee for Geographical Names
(Komitim-Pirenena
Miandraikitra ny Anaran-tany (KPMA)) was created in 1973 by Government decree 73-157,
subsequently revised by decree 2001-235 of March 2001.8 There are eight members from
government departments who assume the role of members of a permanent secretariat, including
the Chairman, from the Ministry of Lands. The total membership of the Committee was
increased from 21 representatives of Government departments in 1973 to 44, as specified in the
decree of 2001. The Committee meets at least once a year, and has a mandate to deal with all
aspects of geographical names standardization inside Madagascar, including problems in
cartographic and other official publications. The decree also sets out other responsibilities of the
Committee, including: conserving and developing the toponymic heritage, organizing seminars
and training, maintaining liaison with other organizations involved with toponymy, and
participating in database development and dissemination of geographical names.
In 1998, South Africa, by Act of Parliament (Act No. 118 of 1998), brought into
existence the new South African Geographical Names Council
(SAGNC), as the body
responsible for standardizing geographical names in South Africa,9 pursuant to which:
•
Membership consists of one representative from each of the provinces
(nine);
representatives from the Post Office, Surveys and Mapping, and the Pan South
African Language Board; and experts appointed for their special expertise in the
official languages and cultural heritage. The Secretariat of the Council and the
appointment of experts falls under the Department of Arts and Culture.
•
The Council establishes the policies and principles for naming geographical features
in South Africa, and determines the names and their written forms, in accordance
with its jurisdiction. The standardized names are recommended to the Minister for
approval and publicized through the Council.
•
The Council is responsible for geographical names, considered to include towns,
smaller settlements, post offices, railway stations, highways, dams and natural
landforms, but not juristic names (names of provinces and local authorities), street
names, private building and farm names, and cadastral names.
7 See Slovenian Government website (http://www.sigov.si/kszi).
8 The text of decree 2001-235 is contained in “Le rapport sur la situation et le progrès accompli dans le domaine de
la normalisation des noms géographiques en Madagascar” (E/CONF.94/INF.70) presented to the Eighth United
Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, Berlin, 2002.
9 See South African Geographical Names Council, Handbook on Geographical Names, 2nd ed. (Pretoria, Department
of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology, South Africa Geographical Names Council, 2002). The Council replaced
the National Place Names Committee of South Africa.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
• The establishment of Provincial Geographical Names Committees
(PGNCs) is
included in the Act of 1998. Their function is primarily to interact with the South
African Geographical Names Council and the local authorities and to undertake
preparatory work for the submission of names to the Council for decision.
The Council has established policies and principles that apply equally well to the
Provincial Committees and are available for the use of local authorities. Essentially, the
application of one official name for each individual feature or entity is stated as a basic principle.
In 2002, the National Committee for Geographical Names (NCGN)10 was established by
the Malaysian Cabinet, with responsibility for coordinating geographical names activities in
Malaysia, in respect to which the following may be noted:
• The membership consists of the Director-General of the Department of Survey and
Mapping Malaysia, as chair, and members representing federal agencies, State
Governments and the Malaysian Administrative Modernization and Management
Planning Unit.
• At the State/Federal territory level, a Committee has been established to coordinate
and implement guidelines and procedures of the National Committee, which will also
work through technical committees and working groups.
• The National Committee’s responsibilities include:
- Developing national guidelines
- Developing a web-based National Geographical Names Database and National
Gazetteer
-
Promoting the use of official names
-
Coordinating Malaysia’s input into international nomenclature activities.
Association of names authorities with cultural and language realities
In some countries, geographical names (“place names” or “placenames”) have particular
significance in the language(s) of the country and are intertwined with the social structure.
Information from Ireland and New Zealand illustrates these connections.
The work of the Placenames Commission of Ireland, established in 1946, will be
affected by recent legislation: the Official Languages Act of Ireland was passed in 2003 “to
promote the use of the Irish language for official purposes in the State; to provide for the use of
both official languages of the State in parliamentary proceedings, in Acts of the Oireachtas, in
the administration of justice, in communicating with or providing services to the public and in
carrying out the work of public bodies”.11 The Act includes a specific section (part 5) entitled
10 See “Country report: Malaysia” presented to the 10th meeting of the Asia South-East and Pacific South-West
Division of the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, in Kuala Lumpur, October 2003.
11 See Acht na d’Teangacha Oifigiúla 2003/Official Languages Act 2003, No. 32 of 2003. Government Publications,
Dublin.
“Official languages” means “the Irish language (being the national language and the first official language)
and the English language (being a second official language) as specified in article 8 of the Constitution”.
For more details on the Placenames Commission of Ireland, see also Art Ó Malfabhail, “The conception, birth and
growth of a national placenames authority”, in Proceedings of the XIXth International Congress of Onomastic
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Some examples of legislation concerning geographical names authorities
“Placenames” that refers to names of provinces, counties, cities, towns, villages, baronies,
parishes, townlands, territorial features
(natural or artificial), districts, regions or places, as
shown on the maps of Ordnance Survey Ireland. The roles of the Placenames Commission (An
Coimisiún Logainmneacha), the Minister and House of the Oireachtas are stated. Only the Irish
language place names in Irish-speaking (Gaeltacht) areas may be used in Acts, on Ordnance
Survey Ireland maps or on road and street signs where the names have been so declared by the
Minister. Road and street signs and Ordnance Survey Ireland maps must use both language
versions of a place name outside these areas.
In New Zealand, the New Zealand Geographic Board Act of 1946 established the Board
as the official place naming authority for New Zealand,12 recognizing the importance of MƗori
place names and allowing for public consultation over place naming. Since 1998, the use of
original MƗori place names has been encouraged on official maps, including those published by
or under the direction or control of the Surveyor-General. The Board’s decisions are subject to
public input; only if the Board receives objection(s) and upholds its original decision is the name
referred to the Minister for Land Information for final decision.
As of 2004, the Act governing this statutory body is under review to clarify and update
the jurisdictional, consultative and administrative provisions of the New Zealand Geographic
Board/NgƗ Pou Taunaha o Aotearoa. The review of the Act will:
• Clarify the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Geographic Board
• Review procedures for public participation and consultation in the place naming
process
• Consider the composition and membership of the Board (currently eight members)
• Ensure that the provisions of the Act align more clearly with the Treaty of Waitangi
• Modernize the Act’s administrative and procedural provisions.
The original Act, now over 50 years old, may be replaced with one that better aligns the
Board with today’s reality. Following public consultation and analysis of public submissions,
revision of the Act would involve the introduction of a legislative bill into Parliament, followed
by its referral to a Select Committee for detailed examination.
Geographical names: official status and names legislation
The official status of the standardized geographical names themselves also varies. In
most instances, it is only government documents that should, or must, use the names as
authorized. However, in some cases the approval structure leads to full legal status of the names,
_________________________
Sciences, Aberdeen, August 4-11, 1996, vol. 3 (Aberdeen, United Kingdom, Department of English, University of
Aberdeen, 1998), pp. 243-251.
12 See Frameworks of the New Zealand Geographical Names Board NgƗ Pou Taunaha o Aotearoa, September
2003, version 1. “Original MƗori place name” refers to any MƗori place name that is recognized by the tangata
whenua (people of the land) as one historically associated with a place within their tribal boundary. Frameworks of
the Board can be found at the Land Information New Zealand website (http://www.linz.govt.nz/rcs/linz/pub/web
/root/core/Placenames/frameworks/index.jsp).
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
as, for instance, in Israel13 where names ratified by the Government Names Commission can be
changed only by the Commission itself or by a court of law. Israel’s national names authority
was set up by decree of the Israeli Government in 1951. The Commission is part of the Prime
Minister’s Office, and its members are appointed individually on a professional, non-political
basis; only the permanent secretary is a government official. The Commission is the sole
authority on geographical names in Israel and its decisions
(which exclude street and
neighbourhood names) have legally binding official status. The Commission is composed of
three subcommissions (Committee on Populated Places; Committee on Geographical Names;
and Committee on Historical Names). A name is first approved by the appropriate
subcommission before being brought before the Plenum of the Government Names Commission,
which convenes around three times a year. Approval by the Plenum and publication in its
records confer official status on a name.
In many countries other than those described above, there are legal acts that concern, at
least in part, the standardization and official approval of geographical names. For the most part,
these identify the competence of various agencies in dealing with names. However, in a few
countries, for example, Norway and Estonia, geographical names have merited special
legislation.
In Norway, a place name act was passed by the Norwegian Parliament in 1990, and the
Act came into force in July 1991.14
The main provisions are that:
• The official body using a place name should authorize the spelling, after consulting
with all parties concerned, including place name consultants.
• Place names authorized in accordance with the Place-name Act are to be used by all
official bodies; where a locality has a Saami name and/or a Finnish name in addition
to a Norwegian name, both/all should be used.
• The written form of a place name should be based on the traditional local
pronunciation, while at the same time complying with current spelling rules (with the
acceptance of some regional variations).
In addition to the Act itself, a set of spelling regulations has been established.
In accordance with the Act, positions for two place name consultants and one assistant
were created for each of the four university regions in the country, in addition to consultants and
13 See Naftali Kadmon, Toponymy: The Lore, Laws and Language of Geographical Names (New York, Vantage
Press, (2001), pp. 213-216. Kadmon also notes that while there is notable uniformity in the use of standardized
name forms in Israel, the romanization of these endonyms is not always as consistent, despite the adoption, by the
Israeli parliament in 1956 and the United Nations in 1977, of an official system of transliteration from Hebrew into
Roman script.
14 Based on Botolv Helleland, “The Norwegian Place-name Act” (E/CONF.85/L.85), document presented at the
Sixth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, New York,
25 August-3
September 1992. Website: http://www.statkart.no (in Norwegian). See also Botolv Helleland, “La loi norvégienne
sur la normalisation des noms de lieu”, in Actas do XX Congreso internacional de Ciencias Onomásticas, Santiago
de Compostela, 20-25 de setembro de 1999 Ana Isabel Boullón Agrelo, ed. Coruña, Spain, (Fundación Pedro Barrié
de la Maza, 2002), pp. 475-482 (CD-ROM).
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Some examples of legislation concerning geographical names authorities
secretaries for Saami and Kven (Finnish) place names in Norway. This advisory service is
organized by the Norwegian Language Council and financed by the Ministry of Cultural Affairs.
All names recognized under the Act must be reported to a central computerized register
administered by the Norwegian Mapping Authority.
An appeal committee, under the chairmanship of a High Court judge, was set up to
handle complaints about the standardized forms of place names. The act will be reviewed
periodically for update.
Estonia also has a special act addressing details of the names and naming process. The
Place Names Act of Estonia was adopted in
1996.15 This legal act determines both the
competence of various agencies in establishing place names and the requirements to be fulfilled
in order for place names to be approved officially.
The main requirements address:
• The language of place names (as a rule, these are in Estonian but, if justified, minority
names are permitted).
• The spelling of place names (must comply with the rules of orthography but may
reflect the local sound structure).
• The matter of having only one name per place (although two official names—one
“principal”, the other “alternative”—are allowed in order to preserve minority place
names).
• Harmonization of the spellings of names.
• Publicity in respect to naming procedures.
• Choice of new official place names (those locally most widely recognized, and also
those most significant in terms of history and cultural history, shall be preferred).
• Allowing for change of geographical names only under exceptional circumstances.
• Avoidance of identical names for places in close proximity.
The full text is available on the Web from http://www.eki.ee/knn/endex2.htm, but, as
with legislation in other countries, the Place Names Act of Estonia is reviewed only every few
years for any necessary revision.
National geographical names authorities: the status quo
At the Eighth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names
held in Berlin in 2002, a questionnaire was circulated to gather information from the delegates
present about geographical names authorities in their countries. Of the respondents, 43 countries
confirmed the current existence of national names authorities (either one or several with differing
15 Based on Peeter Päll, “Legal Status of Names”, in Lecture Notes, vol. 1, for Dutch- and German-speaking
Division/United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names training course in toponymy, Enschede,
Netherlands/Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 10-24 August 2002, p. 78. Edited at Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
2002.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
mandates), and 12 other countries indicated the intention to create such an authority in the near
future. Several countries plan to review their legislation, or to ameliorate the structure of their
names authority or authorities.
For the most part, the provision for a board was reported as having been associated with
the civil or military survey/mapping/geodesy/cadastre or with a language commission/institute.
In some cases, the decision of the board is final; in others, the board recommends its decisions
for the approval of a government minister. Where no board exists, by default, the civil or
military mapping agency usually makes the decisions, at least for use in respect of its own
products.
Space does not permit the inclusion of other (equally worthy) examples, but as can be
seen from those presented above, legislation in different countries can provide for the
functioning of a geographical names board in ways appropriate to the country’s particular
situation. In respect to developing the work of a names board, it is most important to move
towards some form of legislation to support the ongoing functions of the board in the context of
the country’s social, economic, linguistic and cultural reality.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
Chapter IV
Office processing—storing the data and maintaining the
records: some basic thoughts on data fields1
Helen Kerfoot (Canada)
One of the major responsibilities of a national names authority is to act as a focus of
geographical names activity. The support office for the board is required to process all the names
information, to keep comprehensive records of ongoing activities and to make sure that the data
are available for wide government and public distribution.
Particularly in the past, records were often kept in large ledgers, on file cards and in
various forms of handwritten documents. Today, considerably more emphasis is put on word
processing, digital databases and public use through easily accessible websites.
It is not necessarily the type of data required for geographical names records that has
changed, but rather the methods of processing, storing and distributing the data which are being
transformed as technology moves forward. Nevertheless, the key qualities of accuracy and care
in the creation of records are just as important as before. The usefulness of records and a
database can be only as good as the quality of data entered. It is always better to create the
records more slowly, but to get them right the first time. Correcting records later can often be a
difficult and painstaking task, as errors can be elusive. Proliferation of errors can produce a data
set that is unreliable and of dubious value.
Storing the data and maintaining records can be considered one part of
“office
processing” of geographical names, which in the wider sense includes the following phases:
(a) Gathering of toponymic information;
(b) Authorizing the toponyms;
(c) Storing the data and maintaining records;
(d) Disseminating the data.
Generally, today, records will be maintained in some sort of database format in a
computer environment. A spreadsheet (as used for accounting and financial purposes) may be
suitable for temporary storage of geographical names data, but is not recommended for a
permanent textual toponymic database. Some systems may be more sophisticated, for example,
with the database being maintained on the Web with direct officially authorized regional input.
1 Based on an extract from Helen Kerfoot, “Office processing of geographical names”, in Lecture Notes, vol. 1, for
Dutch- and German-speaking Division/United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names training course in
toponymy, Enschede, Netherlands/Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 10-24 August 2002, p. 83-85. Edited at Utrecht
University, Utrecht, Netherlands.
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Office processing—storing the data and maintaining the records: some basic thoughts on data fields
Digital databases may be created from existing handwritten card records, from various
types of lists, by digitizing maps at one or more scales, or by entering names newly collected
from fieldwork. Entering from card records will require that many decisions be made along the
way, as it is likely that the record-keeping was not as rigorous as needed to complete the data
fields of a digital database. Even if, on an interim basis, records must still be maintained on
cards, some decisions will have to be made on what fields should be gathered and stored for each
name.
Data fields
The fields of data for each geographical name will vary considerably from country to
country, according to needs. However, there are some core fields of data that are required. The
list below can, of course, be modified for individual needs, but is based largely on the contents of
databases reported to the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names.
1.
Toponym
Names that have been standardized should be entered with the correct capitalization,
hyphens, diacritics, etc. Only if abbreviations are a standardized part of the name should
they be entered (for example, St. John’s).
(a) Natural order, as would be found on a map or text (for example, Lake Phillip);
(b) Inverted order, as needed for an alphabetical lookup list (for example, Phillip,
Lake). Names of populated places (for example, Harbour Grace) would not be
entered in inverted order.
2.
Feature type
For example: river, mountain, populated place, etc. (or a more detailed breakdown).
The feature type is very important, particularly where ambiguity exists. For example, are
Baker Lake and Mount Pleasant physical features or populated places?
3.
Administrative units in which the feature is located
(a) First level of administrative unit below the country itself (for example, province,
state, district, etc.);
(b) Second level (and third level might also be useful).
If a feature such as a river crosses administrative boundaries, one must be able to indicate
more than one administrative unit in the name record.
4.
Geographical coordinates
(a) Latitude (degrees, minutes, seconds: two digits for each);
(b) Longitude
(degrees, minutes, seconds: three digits for degrees, two digits for
minutes and two digits for seconds).
Although other grid systems may be in use, a mathematical algorithm should allow their
conversion to systems that can be joined with data from other countries. Also, location
north or south of the equator, and east or west of the prime meridian may need to be
included if there is possible confusion within the country.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
For use of the data outside the country, the N, S, E or W designator will need to be added
in a suitable way. For geographic information system
(GIS) applications and data
exchange, the following examples indicate the standards used:
Latitude, north of 0 degrees
e.g.
30
Latitude, south of 0 degrees
e.g.
-30
Longitude, east of 0 degrees
e.g.
120
Longitude, west of 0 degrees
e.g.
-120
Coordinates should be read as accurately as possible from large-scale maps or possibly
with a Global Positioning System (GPS).
Even if the extent of a feature is being identified on a digital graphic system, it is still
useful to have one set of reference coordinates. For areal features (for example, lakes),
these are selected at the centre; for flowing water features, the mouth is used (and
headwater coordinates could be recorded as a secondary value); for urban areas, the
central core is usually the value recorded. The selection of coordinates for some features,
such as glaciers, canals, multiple features (for example, an island group, twin peaks),
needs special consideration.
5.
Map sheets
This could be one map sheet that corresponds with the coordinates of the feature. There
could also be several map sheets on which the feature is located (for example, Mackenzie
River). Separate fields might be used for different scales
(for example,
1:50,000;
1:250,000), depending on the map coverage available.
6.
Variant names
This field is for other names that should be cross-referenced to the main toponym, for
example, historical names, other language forms, other spelling variations.
7.
Status
At a minimum, this could indicate whether the name has approved status, whether it had
approved status in the past or whether it is unapproved. The field can be expanded to
indicate many other levels of information (for example, name change, one of multiple
official names, rescinded by the board). This same field, or a similar one, could also be
used to show what stage the name has reached in processing (for example, ready for
submission to the board, waiting for signature of the department manager).
8.
Date of approval
Year, month, day that the name acquired approved status.
(If the date of board
recommendation is different from the actual approval date, this information could be
added in another field.)
9.
Record identifier
In a digital system each record will require its own unique identification—most likely a
numeric field, although alpha or alphanumeric fields are also possible. In a strictly
toponymic database, a unique record identifier will be attached to each name record. As
names can be duplicated, a name field alone, or combined with another field, is not
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Office processing—storing the data and maintaining the records: some basic thoughts on data fields
suitable as an identifier.
(In a GIS system, the features will have unique identifiers, with
the name records becoming attributes of the feature records. Using both name and
feature identifiers is also a possibility when systems are being linked together.)
Other fields can be added, to show, for example, the geodetic reference of map bases used,
the language of the name, its meaning and origin, its legal status, sources of data, etc. Possibly
older card records can be scanned and added as fields of information on the name record. If
more than one board is responsible for names approval, a field may be necessary to indicate the
approving authority. In some databases, a location narrative (for example, “north of Pembina”,
or “flows south into Blue River”) have been included.
Some toponymic databases may include other information, such as population data and
altitude. However, one should bear in mind that clients expect data to be up to date, and to keep
accurate information for which one does not have direct responsibility requires more resources.
In today’s digital environment, links to other databases responsible for such information may be
a better option.
In any digital database, other fields will be created to allow for identification of the
operator who has entered or modified records and when this was done, explanations of any codes
used in the different data fields, etc.
From the viewpoint of data exchange, it is important that the database be set up to follow
the appropriate International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) standards for the
language(s) in question. Even so, there may be characters that cannot be represented. For
example, in the Athapaskan languages, there are “hard to construct” characters that cannot
currently be entered into the national database following any national or international standards.
Until such time as standards become available, substitution characters are used to cover such
name entries.
From the perspective of office processing, a comprehensive “Records manual” needs to be
available to staff members inputting data. It will indicate how to format data for entry or
modification in the different fields. The better the instructions and the more familiar the staff are
with the database, the more accurate will be the records created—and it is the records themselves
that are the essential part and that will be accessed and used over and over again.
In addition to the alphanumeric data of the toponyms, it is very important that the extents of
the features named (that is to say, the application of the name to the landscape) be maintained in
a spatial
(graphic) form. This could be on reference copies of paper maps or, in today’s
increasingly digital world, limits could be included in digital map files.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
Chapter V
The social and cultural values of geographical names
Botolv Helleland (Norway)
Overview
Whereas the question of standardizing geographical names has been discussed for many decades,
and even for more than a century in some countries, the social and cultural values of
geographical names have been focused on less. The primary goal of the United Nations
Conferences on the Standardization of Geographical Names and the United Nations Group of
Experts on Geographical Names is to foster the establishment of national programmes for the
standardization of geographical names and to promote consistent international use of nationally
standardized names. However, it has been stressed in many forums, in addition to the United
Nations contexts, that geographical names represent a vital part of a nation's cultural heritage and
that it is essential to treat and preserve them accordingly.
Support for this position has come from several sources. First, there is the matter of
historical documentation. Many geographical names were coined by describing certain aspects
of localities or features and thus they provide information about natural and cultural conditions at
the time they were coined. Second, the geographical names of an area form an integral part of
the local language and history. Third, geographical names serve as links between individuals and
their topographic surroundings and, in this capacity, they constitute a part of the identity of a
local population.
A.
Place names: the memory of places
Geographical names, or place names, may be said to represent the oldest living part of
human cultural heritage, in the sense that they have been handed down orally from generation to
generation for hundreds or several thousands of years. In the continents overseas where
Europeans introduced their languages and their names, many aboriginal names nevertheless
survive as a testimony to the existence of earlier civilizations. In many cases, geographical
names are the only surviving elements of extinct languages.1 When one considers that many
geographical names have been coined as descriptions of the area or place in question, it becomes
evident that we are dealing with material of immense historic value; but more recent names of
dwelling places, streets and fields, as well as microtoponyms, also form a part of this collective
onomastic memory and heritage. All the geographical names of the Earth put together represent
an immeasurable body of human experience and insight.
In 1999, Finland chose “Place names: the memory of places” as its theme for the
European Heritage Days. The aim of the Heritage Days is to induce people to see and evaluate
the environment built around them, and to make them value the beauty and variety in it.
1 See Naftali Kadmon, Toponymy: The Lore, Laws and Language of Geographical Names (New York, Vantage
Press, 2001), p. 47.
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The social and cultural values of geographical names
Geographical names, or place names, constitute an indispensable part of the environment, and
the aim of the 1999 Heritage Days was to enable people to become aware of the use of such
names in the planning process. The Heritage Days activity was used as a means of educating the
public about the importance of standardizing geographical names without causing them to lose
their historical value. During that year, a number of events were held, with many people
involved, and the organizers had good reason to call the arrangements a success. As part of the
activities, a video was prepared by the Research Institute for the Languages in Finland, which
was shown on Finnish television.2
For a long time, the question of the preservation of names had hardly been a matter of
interest, although the historic and linguistic value of names was acknowledged. It was not until
the latter half of the twentieth century that the treatment of geographical names in the cultural
context gained wider recognition and became an area of greater activity, thereby increasing
interest both in the general population and among names scholars and planners. Since the 1970s,
numerous conferences and meetings have been held around the world addressing this aspect of
the treatment of geographical names.
Viewpoints representative of communities of name scholars in this field are found in a
report adopted at a symposium on place name treatment and planning held in Finland in 1977,
where it was agreed that: 3
• Geographical names are an important part of our geographical and cultural
environment. They identify geographical entities of different kinds and represent
irreplaceable cultural values of vital significance to people’s sense of well-being and
belonging.
• Geographical names are therefore of major social importance. Society must also bear
the responsibility for respecting geographical names heritage and assuring that place
name planning is carried out in such a way as to ensure that the functionality of the
body of place names is preserved and the cultural heritage protected in a rapidly
changing society.
The United Nations Conferences on the Standardization of Geographical Names have
adopted several resolutions that directly and indirectly apply to the cultural and social values of
geographical names. In resolution VIII/9 adopted at the Eighth Conference
(2002), the
Conference recognized the emphasis placed by delegates on the importance of geographical
names as part of a nation's historical and cultural heritage. The resolution urged countries that
had not already done so, to undertake both the systematic collection of geographical names and
the promotion of a greater understanding among the wider public of the significance of inherited
geographical names with respect to local, regional and national heritage and identity. The
recommendation involved such activities in the treatment of geographical names, as collecting,
storing, interpreting, standardizing, publishing and teaching.
2 See “Place names: the memory of places: the theme of the European Heritage Days in Finland 1999” (WP 22)
submitted to the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names at its twentieth session, New York, 17-
28 January 2000, by Sirkka Paikkala (Finland). See also Sirkka Paikkala, “Place names in Finland as cultural
heritage”, in Onoma, vol. 35 (2000), pp. 145-164.
3 Kurt Zilliacus, ed., Ortnamnsvård och ortnamnsplanering
(Place name care and place name planning), NORNA-
rapporter (Uppsala, Sweden), vol. 13 (1978), p. 211.
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B.
The function of geographical names
A geographical name normally exists in relation to a geographical entity, real or
imagined, and if this entity changes character, the reference of the name may also change. This
important function of geographical names means that they constitute an essential linguistic tool
that is used by most people many times a day; and for this tool to function as well as possible in
an increasingly complicated society, it is incumbent upon the authorities to regulate naming in
certain ways and in certain contexts. For example, it must be determined what name is to be
chosen, in which standardized form, and to what entity it applies.
The reference address function of geographical names is primary, but like other parts of
language geographical names function on several levels, including:
• The cognitive level (identification of an entity), for instance, the North Sea, referring
to a sea in Europe.
• The emotive level, for instance, names relating to places that evoke good or bad
feelings (example: Paradise and Hell).
• The ideological level, for instance, Bethel as the name of a religious assembly house
and Karl-Marx-Stadt for the former (and present-day) Chemnitz.
• The community-constituting level, for example, Saami-speaking people identifying
with Deatnu and Norwegian speakers with Tana, both names referring to the same
river in northern Norway.
All persons are surrounded by named features with which they are familiar, and which
they know as their own. At the same time, there are other names that they share in common with
larger groups in what one may call a structural hierarchy. This can be demonstrated by a simple
three-level hierarchy comprising:
• The geographical names that are common to the people in a microcommunity (family,
farm, village).
• The geographical names that are common to two or more microcommunities (rural
district or town).
• The geographical names that are common to many or most of the communities of a
society.
Figure XXI illustrates the levels of names knowledge shared by different communities in
this particular model. Each circle (A, B, C) represents the collective geographical names
knowledge of individuals in a particular microcommunity.
People who belong to the same language community will on the whole be familiar with
the same names and feel attached to them—even more so if they belong to the same local
community. In multilingual societies, people speaking different languages will apply different
names. These names not only form a body of reference addresses, but constitute a part of
linguistic and local identity. Also, through their close connection with the dialect, geographical
names represent an inherent human value; and for the individual, certain geographical names
may be connected with life experiences.
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The social and cultural values of geographical names
Figure XXI. Conceptual representation of geographical names knowledge
Note:
A, B, C Collective geographical names knowledge of individuals in a
microcommunity.
1
Geographical names (for example, Hesthaug, for a small hill; Leikvoll, for a
small area where people gather) that are common only to the people of a
particular microcommunity.
2
Geographical names (for example, Opedal, for a group of farms; Eidfjord, for a
local municipality) that are known and used by the people of more than one
microcommunity, but that are not widely known.
3
Geographical names (for example, Lofoten, for a well-known group of islands;
Oslo, for a capital city) that are known and used by many or most communities
of a society.
C.
Giving geographical names
Naming of geographical entities has mainly followed one of two paths: “spontaneous or
popular naming” and “baptism”. The majority of geographical names that are used today (in
Europe at least) are the product of the first type of naming, the result of a process of
lexicalization with its starting point in a description of the object being named. Normally, a
geographical name evolves from a descriptive expression (for example, the hill or the green hill)
into a proper name (for example, The Hill or Green Hill). In many cases, the naming will be
governed by analogy, that is to say, new names will be produced on the pattern of other names in
the area or of other names with which the name-givers are familiar. This is one of the reasons
why certain types of names have a tendency to occur with greater frequency than others in
particular areas.4
4 See, for instance Wilhelm F.H. Nicolaisen, “Lexical and onomastic fields”, in Proceedings of the Thirteenth
International Congress of Onomastic Sciences, Cracow, August 21-25, 1978, by Kazimierz Rymut, ed. (Wroclaw,
Poland, 1982) vol. II, pp. 209-216.
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Another way of giving geographical names is to transfer existing names to new entities in
order to compare them with or to commemorate the original place, through the process known as
baptism. This has in particular been the case in earlier European colonies, for instance, Harlem in
New York is named after the Dutch town of Haarlem. Also, people are commemorated in many
geographical names, for instance, George Washington in Washington.
Place names such as Washington could be considered to be among those that have
resulted from a more intentional baptism through which towns, streets, roads, squares and other
entities are given prescribed names through special resolutions. It is true that some of the names
that are given formalized status in this way have earlier been used informally for all or part of the
same named entity.
The preservation of geographical names encompasses first and foremost the inherited and
spontaneously given body of names, but also names that have resulted from planned naming and
have become an integrated part of the society’s cultural heritage. Already in late medieval times,
fortresses and towns, like the Scandinavian Akershus and Landskrona, were named in
accordance with already existing naming patterns. However, planned naming of places over the
last few centuries, and especially in the last 150 years, has become a more vital part of the
naming process.
The earliest official naming in the form of street names appeared first in the major cities.
Some towns had town plans as early as the Middle Ages; and in the beginning, existing
traditional names were used for districts and streets. However, as long as these names had not
received any official stamp, they were liable to change. As the towns gradually developed and
new areas were brought under regulation, naming in a more planned form was carried out. In the
Netherlands, official street names were introduced in Napoleonic times, as likely were the street
names in other parts of continental Western Europe under the influence of the French Empire.
Most of the major, and many of the smaller, Nordic towns have their own surveys of the
development of street names and provide examples of the historical street naming process. For
example:
• The street names in Helsinki had been established for the first time in 1820, whereas
the first street names committee came into existence only 100 years later.
• Stockholm had had its first printed map with street names in 1733, but not until an
announcement in 1832 did the street names in the city acquire an official status.
• In Norway, it seems that Bergen had been the first to appoint a names committee,
which in 1822 made proposals for permanent designations for all streets, alleys and
passages leading to the wharves, and public squares that were found to have no
generally agreed names. Gradually, other towns and local authorities followed suit,
and today all local authorities have an organized system for the giving and planning
of names, often with some contribution from names scholars. This may also be the
case in many other local communities around the world.
The naming of streets, roads, squares, buildings, etc. is an important administrative
activity for local authorities all over the world. The giving of names takes place either through
the acceptance of existing names in the area or through the creation of new names. In recent
times, the use of various categories of names has been a common occurrence, for example,
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The social and cultural values of geographical names
names of birds in one area, names of animals in a second, and names of artists in a third.5 Usually
there is some hesitation about using the names of people who are still alive. In its resolution
VIII/2 (2002), the Eighth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical
Names recommended that appropriate national authorities discourage the use of personal names
to designate a geographical feature (interpreted as including street names, etc.) during the
lifetime of the person in question.
The Swedish name scholar Bengt Pamp6 has emphasized the following factors that should
be considered when new names for streets, buildings, etc. are to be chosen: (a) distinctiveness/
functionality, (b) length of names/orthography, (c) tradition, (d) meaning/etymology, (e) pro-
nunciation and (f) acceptability (that is to say, non-offensive nature). The usual practice of urban
naming is for a designated body in the local authority to pass formal resolutions on new names,
in some cases on the advice of names consultants. A broader overview of the standardization and
designation of geographical names in the Nordic countries is also available.7
D.
Values to be preserved in geographical names
A great deal has been said and written about the value of geographical names, and about
the importance of preserving them. As indicated above, support for this position has come from
several sources. In the first place, there is the matter of historical documentation. Most
geographical names were coined by describing certain aspects of localities or features and thus
supplying information about natural and cultural conditions existing at the time they were
coined. They constitute an important supplement to the history of the places where people
settled. The world's stock of geographical names reflects the history of civilization over a time
span of several thousand years—even though it is often impossible to decide upon the exact age
of most names. It is also difficult to know the exact number of geographical names in a given
linguistic society as old names are being forgotten and new names are being given, according to
the present needs of name users.
One can also see geographical names as a reflection of the interplay between humans and
nature through different periods of time. The many regional names studies that have been carried
out in the world show that geographical names provide a multifaceted and detailed picture of
human existence in relation to our surroundings. In some cases, the written geographical names
may tell us in a general way about the time spans of settlement. For instance, Dirk Blok, in
referring to Dutch-speaking parts of Europe, indicated that: names ending in -burg or -ingen
5 For examples of this type in a South African city, see Colin Clive Smith, “Naming a city: the street and place
names of the Roodepoort area 1854-1999”, Nomina Africana, vol. 16 (2002), pp. 56-64.
6 Bengt Pamp, “Namnvårdens argument” (The arguments for name care), in Ortnamnsvård och ortnamnsplanering,
Kurt Zilliacus, ed. NORNA-rapporter (Uppsala, Sweden), vol. 13 (1978), pp. 9-21. The Swedish Act concerning
Ancient Monuments and Finds was revised in 2000 and includes a new paragraph concerning “a code of good place-
name practice”. The emphasis is placed on the importance of preserving the place names as a part of the nation’s
cultural heritage (see Leif Nilsson, “Current trends in Swedish place-name standardization”, Onoma, vol. 35 (2000),
pp. 279-287).
7 Botolv Helleland, “Place-name care and standardization in the Nordic countries”, Onoma, vol. 37 (2002), pp. 325-
356.
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were recorded in the period from the seventh to the ninth century; names ending in -donk
were recorded after the tenth century; names ending in -kerke were recorded in the period from
the twelfth to the thirteenth century; and names ending in -dam were recorded after the thirteenth
century.8
In addition to being repositories of natural and cultural history, names represent an
important part of our linguistic heritage. This understanding of geographical names as a
historical and linguistic source has long been central within the community of names scholars
and has in the course of time opened up the way for a broader commitment to the protection and
preservation of names, as attested in the legislation of several countries. In this perspective, we
also note the increasing concern with geographical names in multilingual areas,9 and recall
several resolutions adopted by the United Nations Conferences on the Standardization of
Geographical Names that have supported the collection and use of minority group and
indigenous geographical names, for example, Conference resolutions V/22
(1987) and
VIII/1 (2002).
E.
Collection of geographical names
It is self-evident that all countries and regions should record and preserve their
geographical names. Since around 1900, an important aim has been to collect geographical
names, either by categories or by in-depth studies in selected areas. In this work, emphasis has
been placed on registering the pronunciation that has been handed down by oral tradition, since it
best reflects the linguistic basis of names. At the same time, although the scientific archives have
built up systematic collections of older written forms, it is the collection in the field of oral
material that has been, and still is, the most important means of preserving, as far as possible, the
wealth of names still existing in older tradition. In recent times, the preservation of geographical
names from both oral and written sources has been acknowledged politically in many countries.
For the general public, it is usually not the historical value of names that is of most
concern but rather the unilateral changes made by administrators, without adequate local
consultation to names currently in use. Many people feel this to be a form of encroachment on
their well-being. That names uphold the social and cultural values of the individual is an
important argument for promoting the systematic collection of names.10
F.
Exonyms
One special type of geographical name seen as part of the cultural heritage is that referred
to as an exonym. The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names Glossary of
Terms for the Standardization of Geographical Names defines an exonym as a name used in a
specific language for a geographical feature situated outside the area where that language has
8 For an English-language reference, see Dirk P. Blok, “Names in -iacum”, in Topothesia: A Collection of Essays in
Honour of T.S. Ó Máille, Breandán S. Mac Aodha, ed. (Galway, Ireland, 1982), pp.111-114.
9 See F.J. Ormeling, Minority Toponyms on Maps. The Rendering of Linguistic Minority Toponyms on Topographic
Maps of Western Europe (Utrecht, Netherlands, Department of Geography, University of Utrecht, 1983).
10 Naftali Kadmon, Toponymy. The Lore, Laws and Language of Geographical Names (New York, Vantage Press,
2001), p. 177.
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The social and cultural values of geographical names
official status, and differing in its form from the name used in the official language or languages
of the area where the geographical feature is situated (Glossary, 079). Better-known examples
include: Vienne (French) and Vienna (English) for Wien in Austria; Ginebra (Spanish) for
Genève in Switzerland; and Vilna (Finnish) for Vilnius in Lithuania. Less generally known
examples may form part of the vocabulary of smaller language groups (for instance, in Faroese:
Høvdastaður for Cape Town; Skiloy for Sicilia; Kili for Chile; and Simbabvi for Zimbabwe). All
language communities have such names, and in the individual language they are part of the
linguistic heritage of those communities. This has been recognized by the United Nations
Conferences on the Standardization of Geographical Names
(for example, in Conference
resolution II/28,
1972). At the same time, however, several United Nations Conference
resolutions have recommended that the use of exonyms be reduced (for example, II/29 and
IV/20), particularly in cartography, in order to facilitate international communication through the
use of nationally standardized geographical names.
G.
Concluding remarks
In discussing geographical names as part of the cultural heritage, one must take into
account the fact that geographical names in a society are part of the language. Geographical
names are functional to the extent that they have a place in a society’s communication system;
when they no longer fulfill a need, they fall out of use. As is apparent from this presentation,
geographical names preservation is an important issue of concern to both laymen and experts.
Traditionally, problems in connection with the spelling and writing of geographical names have
been the central focus, and indeed they still are; but in recent decades, the issue of protecting
geographical names as part of the linguistic cultural heritage has come more to the forefront.
Increasing globalization offers the advantage of allowing a wider understanding of local names
and heritage. However, in some cases today, local place names appear at risk from the
imposition, through both local and global commercialization, of names introduced from
outside cultures.
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Chapter VI
Exonyms, also called conventional names1
Naftali Kadmon (Israel)
Part one of this manual deals only with "local" names or endonyms (Glossary, 076),
those names that a national authority on geographical names is authorized to standardize. At an
advanced stage, however, this authority may be called upon to prepare a list of exonyms or
conventional forms of names to be used for features outside the area of its jurisdiction. The
present chapter deals briefly with this aspect of toponymy.
Three methods of names conversion, namely, transliteration, transcription and translation,
were discussed in part two, chapter II with respect to endonyms; exonyms will now be
considered. An exonym (Glossary, 081) is just a "different" name for a place, adapted to the
linguistic or other cultural environment of the community that coined it, often without preserving
the meaning, sound or graphic form of the original endonym.
An exonym is a name given by a linguistic community—a group of people who
communicate with each other with relative ease in a common language—in its own language to a
topographic feature situated in a territory where this language has no official status, for example,
a foreign country.2 The English traditionally use the form "conventional name", but here we will
use the internationally accepted term “exonym”.
For a toponym to be defined as an exonym, there must exist a minimum degree of
difference between it and the corresponding endonym. Therefore, the Third United Nations
Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names (1977), in its resolution III/19,3 in
effect excluded the following categories of toponyms from being included in lists of exonyms:
those differing from the official name only by the omission, addition or alteration of diacritics or
the article; those differing from the official name by declension or derivation; those created by
the translation of a generic term. Also, a name constitutes an exonym if it differs from the
endonym other than by transliteration or transcription. ýkalovsk is not an exonym of the Russian
city ɑɤɚɥɨɜɫɤ, but simply the endonym written in a different script. The omission of diacritical
marks usually does not turn an endonym into an exonym: Sao Paulo (for São Paulo); Malaga (for
Málaga) or Amman (for `AmmƗn) are not considered exonyms. However, in certain languages,
diacritics enable names that are otherwise identical to be distinguished; in such cases, the
1 Text adapted, with permission, from Naftali Kadmon, Toponymy: The Lore, Laws and Language of Geographical
Names (New York, Vantage Press, 2001), chap. II.
2 The view—deviating from the formal definition cited—is held by some that names given by a linguistic
community to places that formerly belonged to a political entity (such as a country) where the language of this
community had official status, but where it now has none, do not constitute exonyms. At the Eighth United Nations
Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names (2002), a new working group was established to deal
specifically with questions regarding exonyms.
3 See Third United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, vol. I. Report of the
Conference, Athens, 17 August-7 September 1977 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.79.I.7).
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Exonyms, also called conventional names
omission of these diacritics could be regarded as generating exonyms. Thus, in Slovakia, Rovné
and Rovne are different places, as are Brezany and Brežany. This is the reason for the broad
definition of the term "exonym" in the Glossary.
When speaking of an exonym of a place, one should always indicate the language in
which it applies. The following are a few examples out of a vast multitude: Brunswick is an
English exonym for the German endonym Braunschweig; Kopenhagen is the German exonym
and Köpenhamn the Swedish exonym for the Danish København
(English exonym:
Copenhagen); Moscou is the French exonym and Moscow is the English exonym for the
endonym of the Russian capital (romanized as Moskva). Similarly, Cairo is the English exonym
for the Arabic al-QƗhirah.
Figure XXII. Red Square in Moscow
Note: Red Square is the English exonym for the Russian Krasnaja plošþad and Moscow
the English exonym for the Russian Moskva
Photograph by the author.
There are three main reasons for the evolution, existence and persistence of exonyms.
The first is historical. In many cases, explorers, unaware of existing local names, or colonizers
and military conquerors unmindful of them, gave names in their own language to geographical
features having native names, and these exonyms remained in use in the countries concerned.
One of the best known is Mount Everest, named after the British Surveyor-General of India
between 1830 and 1843. It later became an official endonym, but this geographical feature was,
and is still, called Qomolangma by Tibetans and SagarmƗthƗ by Nepalis. These alternative
names are known as allonyms (Glossary, 005).
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
The second reason is related to problems of pronunciation. A specific speech community
may not be able to pronounce a particular foreign name, or even to hear some of its sounds, and
thus may mis-record it. Many Europeans are unable to pronounce the Arabic gh, ύ, sound as in
“Ghazza” or “BenghƗzi” and often substitute a hard g, resulting in Gaza and Bengazi.
Finally, if a geographical feature extends over more than one country, it may have a
different endonym in each. In such cases, an exonym is usually substituted by other countries.
The river starting in Germany under the endonym Donau and ending in the Black Sea as the
Dunaj traverses eight countries and carries five different endonyms; hence, for simplicity, the
English language uses the exonym Danube to cover the river’s entire length.
When an exonym is "accepted" by a linguistic community and frequently appears in its
literature in connection with some tradition, it may be regarded as a traditional name (Glossary,
345). This term relates, among others, to names with a religious connotation such as Rome
(English) for Roma (Italian) and Mecca (English) for Makkah (Arabic). Exonyms for countries
and important cities also usually come under the heading of traditional names.
However, while there is little chance that exonyms or traditional names will be totally
abolished in national and local use, there is practically unanimity of opinion within the United
Nations that they should not be used internationally.
Finally, the Western exonym Peking is still remembered in restaurants in connection with
duck, but even on the menu Peking is already being replaced by the endonym Beijing—hence,
Beijing Duck.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
Chapter VII
From fieldwork to authorized names: the “owner
decides” principle followed in the Netherlands
Ferjan Ormeling (Netherlands)
In many countries, a names authority decides on the spelling of geographical names, but
even if a names authority exists, it can delegate the authority to decide on the orthography of a
geographical name.
In the Netherlands, the principle of local usage is followed in adopting geographical
names. The Topografische Dienst, which has responsibility for geographical names on the
national topographical map series of the Netherlands, uses the names provided by various bodies
and individuals considered to “own” the entities (that is to say, places, or natural or constructed
features) in question.
In the Netherlands, the central principle in recognizing a geographical name is that
the “owner” of a geographical object decides on the (spelling of the) entity’s name.
1.
The names of provinces and municipalities are fixed by law, as it is the
Government that oversees and controls them.
The country is divided into 12 provinces and (in 2003) 489 municipalities.
2.
Within each municipality, it is the municipality that decides on the names of
entities (islands, lakes, rivers, populated places) within its territory.
There exists no regular consultation structure for deciding on the names of entities
that do not totally lie within a single municipality, so that it may happen that the name
of a feature changes from one municipality to another. Hearrenwei may change to
Herenweg (Frisian and Dutch versions, respectively, of a road name, which would
translate into English as “Gentry Road”).
3.
It is owners of farms or individual buildings who decide on the names of these
buildings.
Farmers may name their farms for their families
(for example, Sybellemahof,
Drewerderhof, Albertine-state), give religious names (such as Ora et Labora, or Eben
Haëzer), reflect on their objectives
(for example, Hoop op Welvaart: “Hope for
prosperity”) or name the farms for nearby geographical features. As the owners
decide on the name, they may also use spelling that is no longer current, or just
linguistically incorrect. The owner may name his farm De Weide Blick, which in
official orthography should be De Wijde Blik (that is to say, “The Wide View”).
Near the Dutch hamlet Eese, some derived names like Eeserveen (a peat area) and
Eesermeer (a lake) are used in accordance with the original name Eese. However, a
nearby farmer is at liberty to name his farm Ezerveld instead of Eeserveld. And as
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From fieldwork to authorized names: the “owner decides” principle followed in the Netherlands
the spelling the owner uses is definitive, it is the name Ezerveld that will appear on
the map, next to Eese, Eesermeer and Eeserveen. Misspelled or altered names are
accepted but are, of course, inconsistent with the principle that derived names should
be spelled in the same way as the names with which they are associated.
4.
Rivers and canals are being managed and supervised in the Netherlands by
specific water management authorities (waterschappen) and it is these bodies,
therefore, that decide on the names of these units and their constituent parts.
Since the twelfth century, the waterschappen have been organized in parallel to the
provincial/municipal hierarchy to address issues of the struggle against sea water and
river water. To prevent inundations, they oversee the building and maintenance of
dams and dykes, sluices and windmills used for pumping out the superfluous water.
These drainage organizations have their own elected boards and collect their own
taxes. And, of course, they have their own geographical names, both for the overall
units and for the constituent parts, or polders (that is to say, areas usually surrounded
by dykes that have a specific fixed ground water table level, determined by the decree
of these water or drainage boards). As a coordinating agency, the State Government
has superimposed over them the Department of Public Works and Water
Management (Rijkswaterstaat), a directorate of the Ministry of Public Works. The
polder names, as recorded in the decrees that fix the water levels, are used as a source
for topographers who collect the relevant names for the maps.
Parallel hierarchic organizations with specific territorial functions, as described for
the Netherlands in the waterschappen (as opposed to the provinces/municipalities),
also exist in other countries. Examples are the irrigation organizations like the huertas
in Spain and the cattle grazing organizations on Hungary’s puszta (steppe).
Apart from the “natural” rivers and lakes that dot the Netherlands (actually one vast
delta area of the rivers Rhine and Meuse), there is a multitude of artificial
waterbodies. The technical terminology reflects their differences in size and function.
A “-zijl”, for instance, is a canal that ends at a sluice or at least at a point where water
can be pumped out. A “sloot” is a small canal (ditch) used for drainage of individual
parcels of land. The determination whether a water body falls into one feature
category or another might sometimes be rather arbitrary, as the standards or
definitions of the categories, as well as the functions of the water bodies themselves,
may have changed over time. The generics linked to the names may therefore in fact
have become obsolete!
5.
The Hydrographic Survey is in charge of mapping the tidal flats, estuaries,
channels, gullies and sandbanks on our coast, and it is this organization that is in
charge of the names of these entities.
Of course, there could be an overlap in naming responsibility: municipalities, rather
than the Hydrographic Survey, might regard themselves as in charge of deciding on
the names of coastal features. However, this has not caused any conflicts as yet.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
Naming new places and structures
As most of the country has been densely settled for a thousand years, new names need be
given only to new infrastructure features, such as canals, tunnels and port extensions. New
names have to be found when municipalities are amalgamated, or when land is reclaimed from
the sea. In this last-mentioned case, names found in archival documents showing previously
existing villages have been used to name the newly planned settlements. The “new” names
proposed by local administrative bodies in such cases are submitted to the Advisory Commission
for Determining Dutch Geographical Names
(Adviescommissie voor het vaststellen van
Nederlandse aardrijkskundige namen) of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
The Commission advises only on official administrative or political applications, and there exists
no possibility for public input regarding requests to change place names.
Laws regulate the spelling of the Dutch language, and these laws have to be adhered to at
least for street names; other geographical names in the Netherlands, for the time being, are
exempt from this law. In adjacent Belgium, the same spelling law for the Dutch language
applies, and here all geographical names do adhere to the law.
Minority names
Under the system of the “owner decides” principle, a municipality can now, if it so
desires, render the names of the entities within its area in the minority language. This has in fact
happened in part of our minority-language area, the province of Fryslân (in the north of the
country), where a number of municipalities have a population that feels strongly about the
restoration of their original Frisian names. They have used this newly established principle to
correct the geographical names within their area and to rewrite them according to the (new)
orthographic rules for the Frisian language.
The formerly official Dutch names can be added in brackets, as illustrated in figure
XXIII, by a Netherlands topographic map (original scale 1:50,000).
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From fieldwork to authorized names: the “owner decides” principle followed in the Netherlands
Figure XXIII. Bilingual map presentation with Frisian minority names first and
Dutch majority names in parentheses
Copyright 2003, Topografische Dienst, Emmen, Netherlands.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
Chapter VIII
Example from the Netherlands of written instructions to
surveyors for collecting toponyms in the field1
Ferjan Ormeling (Netherlands) and
Nico Bakker (Netherlands)
Written instructions should be available in advance for the surveyors/topographers who
have to collect geographical names in the field. For example, for surveyors/topographers in the
Netherlands, their instructions include the following topics:
• Objectives. The objectives are to collect both geographical and descriptive names of
objects (namely, places, and natural and constructed features) referred to by local
people in their day-to-day conversation. The names collected should still be current,
they should be in the official orthography2 and the entities to which the names refer
should be known, regarding both their nature and their extent. The rules for writing
the Dutch language have been laid down by law. This law applies only to street
names, however, not to all other geographical names.
• Categories of geographical entities that need names. There is a standard list of
entities to be named, consisting of:
(a) Municipalities;
(b) Populated settlements;
(c) Non-administrative geographical entities, like forests, regions or fields;
(d) Polders or other water drainage entities;
(e) Navigable watercourses;
(f) All other watercourses and lakes;
(g) Channels;
(h) Roads, streets, dykes, paths, quays and embankments;
(i) Buildings (farms, isolated buildings);
(j) Special features (bridges, dams, viaducts, border markers, etc.).
1 Based on Tjeerd Tichelaar and Ferjan Ormeling, “Names collection in the field and the office”, in Lecture Notes,
vol. 1, for Dutch- and German-speaking Division/United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names training
course in toponymy, Enschede, Netherlands/Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 10-24 August 2002, pp. 64-65, edited at
Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands, 2002; and on the presentation of Nico Bakker (Topografische Dienst
Nederland) on “Geographical names in the Dutch Topographical Maps”, given at the same course. Some examples
have been taken from the Specifications/Handbook Namenboek Topografische Dienst, Handleiding Versie, 2001.
2 The term “official orthography” refers to the spelling of these names as used in official sources, for example,
decrees of water management boards, municipality acts, and provincial and State laws that refer to geographical
names in their texts. These official decrees and laws were never intended as the final authority in the spelling of
these names; but in the absence of an official names agency in the Netherlands, they have taken on this role.
137
Example from the Netherlands of written instructions to surveyors for collecting toponyms in the field
The responsibility for collecting the official spelling of the names in categories (d) and
(e) used to rest with Rijkswaterstaat (see part two, chap. VII) and that for collecting the
names in category
(g) with the Hydrographic Service, the Topographical Service
(Topografische Dienst Nederland) being responsible for all the other names. As lately the
two first institutions have not been very active in collecting names, the responsibility for
collecting names in categories (d), (e) and (g) has gradually drifted to the Topographical
Service.
•
Preparation of the preliminary names model, or field sheet during the
preliminary phase. The aim of this activity is to establish on awareness of the issues
that are relevant for the names collecting in the designated area and of problems
connected with finding the names of specific entities.
•
A list of persons or documentary sources to be consulted. We need local
authorities that have lived a long time in the region, have information on recent
developments and have travelled widely over the area. Among the persons to be
consulted are municipality personnel, schoolteachers, knowledgeable shopkeepers,
postmasters, clergy, public notaries, local historians, polder board officials, and
spokesmen for State forests and nature areas. Among the documentary sources are the
current map(s), names on entities or signposts, official municipality lists, town plans
and guides, navigation handbooks and handbooks on nature reserves.
Before the topographers go into the field, they can consult the names ledgers and the
names lists for the previous edition of the relevant maps. They may find lists of
sources, with telephone numbers of informants used for reviewing names for the
previous edition of the map. In theory, at least, these persons can be contacted
beforehand in order to arrange meetings. Since the publication of the previous edition
of the map sheet, all queries, remarks and suggestions regarding the geographical
names have been collected on an additional names document. This will help the
topographers in solving any outstanding issues and correcting mistakes. Before going
into the field, the topographers will also discuss the area to be surveyed with their
section head, who will make them aware of any problems or issues regarding the
area’s names.
•
During the fieldwork. The topographer/surveyor has to verify all the names on the
map, by checking them on name signs or buildings, by asking the inhabitants about
them or by contacting the local authorities. If any official documents exist that reflect
recent name changes, they should be copied and added to the file. During this phase,
the topographer also has to assess the numbers of inhabitants of settlements in the
municipality, if these data can be derived from the population files. For this purpose,
the name of the relevant administrative officials are kept in the files. Information to
be requested in the municipality includes names of settlements, names of parts (for
example, wards or neighbourhoods) of villages, towns and cities, and their number of
inhabitants.
(The number of inhabitants will determine the size of type to be used for
the name.)
Topographers/surveyors in many countries have been or are equipped with special
name collection forms, on which to fill in, for example, the spelling of a name
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
according to the current topographical and/or cadastral maps; the name spelling
according to the inhabitants, local officials and old maps; and, then, the name
proposed by the surveyor for official use. In the case of the Netherlands, the
surveyors/topographers annotated the names on names ledgers (also referred to as
field sheets) that are a printing in grey of the line work of the previous edition of the
map. Here, with letter codes, the sources were added and explained in the map
margin. Names no longer current were indicated with specific colours. Now,
however, the surveyors go out into the field with hand-held computers containing the
previous map edition and recent aerial photographs, with digital forms for the names
to be added shortly.
Issues to be considered when using names ledgers (or computers) to record the names are:
(a) The location and extent of the named entity;
(b) The orthography of the name;
(c) The nature of the entity being named.
Special problems were encountered using names ledgers when the map margin cut
through the named feature. The topographer/surveyor then had to liaise with the
colleague doing the fieldwork for the adjoining map sheet.
All modified or new names have to be inserted on the aerial photograph or the map of
the area by the topographer.
•
Production of the names list. This is completed on official preprinted forms with an
indication of the nature of the named entity, its size, etc. These lists used to be
produced for the typesetter, but are now used by the cartographers who have to know
what size, colour and style the names on the map should have. It is expected that, in
the new digital environment, these names lists will be automatically system-
generated.
The information collected by the topographers comprises two categories:
(a) Toponyms;
(b) Generic designations (labels) such as factory, cemetery, etc.
•
Production of the final names model or name sheet. This names model will have
the letter sizes indicated and the names rendered in their planned final locations (on
the basis of the extent of the entities or the number of inhabitants).
•
Instructions on the manner of locating the names on the names model, and the
required density of the names on the final topographic map. These instructions
also refer to the colours, sizes, script types or styles to be used. Here, also, rules are
provided indicating where to put the names for entities located on a coastline, and
how to deal with linear or point entities. Names of rivers and canals and depth figures
are indicated in blue. Municipality names and altitude figures are rendered in brown.
Purple is the colour used for all air navigation names. Red is the colour used for all
names and road numbers that are related to the highway network. All other names and
designations are shown in black.
139
Example from the Netherlands of written instructions to surveyors for collecting toponyms in the field
•
Rules for letter sizes of names of town wards or neighbourhoods. The various
wards of a town or city can have individual names as well. Sometimes, they are the
names of originally separate settlements.
•
Rules for selection of farm names. These should be contingent on the relative
density of farms.
•
Rules for splitting up names. In case there is little space within which to place the
name, the name may have to be split up, and it should be made clear where in the
word(s) of the name this may be done.
•
Rules for spacing letters in names. In order to improve reference to a specific entity
with a broad extent, spacing between letters might be feasible, if carried out in a
systematic way.
•
Rules for abbreviations. As is the case with splitting up names, if there is not
enough space on the map to accommodate all names that should be included, names
may have to be abbreviated. Abbreviations have to be explained in the map margin.
Standard abbreviations exist for most generics, as well as for words denoting cardinal
directions, titles and some adjectives frequently used in geographical names (such as
the Dutch versions of old, new, large, small, lower and upper).
•
Rules for putting altitude figures on the map. This has little to do with toponymy,
but as the figures for height and depth values are printed in the same colour as that of
the names on the map, this kind of information is usually defined by the same person
who determines the topographical names.
•
Rules for selecting fonts, sizes and colours. For different map scales, different
selections of fonts, sizes and colours can be made.
•
Some orthographic rules. This refers to the use of hyphens, the use of capitals, and
the handling of orthographically incorrect names.
•
Sources for the official orthography of specific name categories. Names of
privately owned entities might be subject to different orthographic rules from those
applied to publicly owned entities.
•
Definitions of the name categories represented on the map. Sometimes it is not
clear whether an entity should be named, or into which category it falls. That is why
definitions of these entities are needed.
•
Rules for documenting the decisions regarding the names. As there is no
geographical names board in the Netherlands, the Topografische Dienst is responsible
by default for collecting the names. Its decisions regarding the orthography of the
names are well documented for future reference. The name of the informant is
documented, as well as his/her occupation, and address or telephone number.
•
Rules for selecting majority or minority language name versions in bilingual
areas. In this section of the instructions, the generic parts of the Frisian name are
listed so that their spelling can be standardized and explained in Dutch, that is to say:
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
(a) Municipality names are to be derived from a list published in the official
gazette;
(b) For settlement names, the first name found on place-name signs should be used
as the main name on the map. If there is a second name underneath, this may be
added on the map in parentheses;
(c) Names of entities in the other categories are written on the map in the form that
has been found on name signs in the area (these can be either in Dutch or in
Frisian) unless official sources state otherwise;
(d) Labels for factory, cemetery, skating rink, etc. are rendered in Dutch only and
are not translated into Frisian.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
Chapter IX
Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors,
for international use (from the 1970s to the present)1
Helen Kerfoot (Canada) and Eeva Maria Närhi (Finland)
Toponymic guidelines: their conception
At the Third United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names
held in Athens in
1977, the gathering and dissemination of toponymic information were
discussed. It became clear that the general comprehension of geographical names around the
world was not of a high level. The great variation in geographical names and in the approaches
to their use in different countries was not well understood by experts, and certainly not by the
information users, for example, cartographers.
This deficiency triggered action. Dr. Josef Breu of Austria, elected Chairman of the
United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names following the Third Conference,
initiated a practical approach to make the current toponymy and standardization methods in
different countries systematically available to the information users. Initially, this was directed at
cartographers, but later the user base was considered to encompass a more general international
audience, particularly including those involved in publishing.
At the eighth session of the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names in
New York in 1979, Dr. Breu presented the first sample of
“Toponymic guidelines for
international cartography”. His
10-page document
(WP 5) summarized the appropriate
information for Austria and provided readers, for example, with information on spelling rules, on
the linguistic substrata and on minority languages (Slovenian, Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian
and Czech). He explained different responsibilities for names standardization and recorded such
important source material as the 1:50,000 Österreichische Karte and the official gazetteer of
1971. Appellatives, adjectives and other words necessary for the understanding of maps and
cadastral plans in German and minority languages were listed over three pages.
This model for toponymic guidelines was published in World Cartography, vol. XVIII,2 1986,
and still provides a helpful reference for others to follow.
Recommendations on the content of toponymic guidelines
This useful tool for advancing the common understanding of toponymy is aimed at
systematically presenting information for each country: about languages, their distribution and
status; linguistic and administrative maps; the alphabet/script used in written forms of names,
1 The text of the present chapter is a modified and updated version of Helen Kerfoot and Eeva Maria Närhi, “United
Nations standardization of geographical names: development of toponymic guidelines for map and other editors for
international use”, Nomina Africana, vol. 15, Nos. 1 and 2 (2001).
2 United Nations publication, Sales No. E.85.I.23.
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Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors, for international use (from the 1970s to the present)
supplemented by information on the phonetic values of characters and the use of capitalization,
word strings, etc.; names standardizing authorities and their contact addresses; published source
material containing standardized names; and a glossary of common terms within toponyms. In
subsequent years, other items were added, including abbreviations used and methods of
differentiating toponyms from other text on national maps (see appendix I to the present chapter
for a detailed outline.)
Where countries had names standardization bodies or well-established means of
treatment and maintenance of toponymy, these guidelines could normally be considered
“official”. In other cases, they were viewed essentially as practical professional instruments for
toponymists, geographers and cartographers. Some countries have presented more than one
edition of their guidelines. Updating is, of course, one of the necessary factors in respect to
keeping the guidelines useful.
Some important aspects of toponymic guidelines
Toponymic guidelines are seen as a tool for advancing the common understanding of
toponymy and the need for standardization. For each country, these guidelines, promoted by the
United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, provide a systematic way of
collecting basic information on the national toponymy and relevant policies. The consistent
approach developed for the guidelines also entails giving the user easy-to-use reference
documents.
Many toponymic guidelines are of excellent quality and contain very useful
information—unfortunately, only a few items can be cited here by way of example.
In most countries more than one language is spoken, so it is important that the guidelines
give a clear picture of the languages, their distribution and status in the country. The status
possibilities are many, as witnessed by the entries for “language” in the Group of Experts
Glossary of Terms for the Standardization of Geographical Names (2002): official, national,
principal, indigenous, vehicular, minority, literary, colloquial, standard, non-official, etc. For
example, South Africa (in 1992) provided details on the Afrikaans, English, Khoekhoen and
Nguni languages (E/CONF.85/L.23).3 Turkey’s guidelines provided information on the linguistic
substrata in Turkish place names, reflecting Turkey’s
“intermediate position between two
continents and different cultural realms”
(E/CONF.74/L.7).4 The guidelines for France,
published as Guide de toponymie cartographique in 1989 (Institut Géographique National,
1989), included significant detailed information and maps on languages and dialectal variations
in France.
Guidelines provide information about the alphabet (or other writing system) used in a
country in written forms of names. It was quickly found, however, that an alphabet needed to be
supplemented by information on the phonetic value of characters in the particular languages of
the country. Even within the Roman alphabet, characters may have different values in different
3 Sixth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, vol. II, Technical papers, New
York, 25 August-3 Septemeber 1992 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E/F/S.95.I.39), pp. 279-294.
4 See Fourth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, vol. II, Technical papers
(United Nations publication, Sales No. E/F/S.86.I.21).
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
languages. For example, the character z is pronounced as: a voiced [z] in English, Dutch, Polish,
Czech, French, Greek (new), Romanian, Hungarian and Russian (transliterated) names; as [ș] in
Spanish names; as [s] in Swedish; as [ts] in German, Greek (classical) and often in Italian; and as
[dz] in some Greek and Italian names.
As the guidelines are intended to serve national and international publishing needs and
communication, rules of spelling are of primary importance. The use of capitalization, hyphens,
joining of word strings, etc. are usually established by the long tradition of a country and these
fundamentals provide important knowledge for the correct use of place names. Most European
countries—all countries of the Norden Division, for instance—emphasize the necessity for
specific diacritics and ligatures in writing toponyms in the languages of their countries. The
guidelines for Estonia, Finland, Germany and the Netherlands elaborate well-established spelling
rules for Estonian, Finnish/Saami, German and Dutch names; Swedish and Danish have no
explicit orthographic rules, but usage is based on long-standing tradition. Iceland’s guidelines
indicate that spelling of toponyms is resolved by the Icelandic Place-Name Committee, while
those for Norway discuss the status of two standard languages and the spelling of toponyms in
the context of the historical background.
From the outset, it was considered very important to include contact addresses for more
information on the handling of standardized names in a country. Also, it was essential to include
published source material that used standardized forms of toponyms, for example, gazetteers,
maps and atlases providing the user with reliable information. Various countries (for example,
the United States of America, Canada, Australia and Germany) provide detailed information on
the names authorities, at both federal and State/provincial/territorial level, that are responsible for
official toponymy.
Cartographic abbreviations, which can be a puzzle for those unfamiliar with the language,
have proved most valuable (for example, those presented by the Federal Republic of Germany in
document E/CONF.94/CRP.29 and by Finland in document E/CONF.91/L.17). Well docu-
mented generic terminology has also been most useful (for instance, that provided by South
Africa in document E/CONF 85/L.23).
Progress to date
Dr. Breu’s initiation of an approach to the guidelines provided a framework within which
others could undertake similar work, and at the ninth session of the United Nations Group of
Experts on Geographical Names in 1981, 10 sets of guidelines were presented, by: Austria (WP
10); Federal Republic of Germany (WP 11); Suriname (WP 12); Canada (WP 16); France (WP
21); Greece (WP 28); Hungary (WP 35); Finland (WP 37); Sweden (WP 38); and German
Democratic Republic (WP 60). By the twenty-second session of the Group of Experts in 2004,
some 35 countries had presented toponymic guidelines, some now having produced three or four
editions, or more.
Since the early days, the title has been modified to fit a broader user audience and to
clarify the purpose of the guidelines. The latest recommendation for the title (from 1982 and
1986 amendments) is “Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors, for international use”.
145
Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors, for international use (from the 1970s to the present)
Dr. Breu had continued as coordinator of the toponymic guidelines until after he had
retired. In 1991, Dr. Peter Raper (South Africa), newly elected as Chair of Group of Experts,
took over guidance of the project. In 2004, the Group of Experts again handed back the reins to
Austria, with Dr. Isolde Hausner taking responsibility for coordinating and re-evaluating the
content of the guidelines.
At several United Nations Conferences and sessions of the Group of Experts,
considerable attention was been given to questions of publishing collections of available national
guidelines. Although for various reasons (both technical and financial) this has not come to
fruition, individual country toponymic guidelines continue to be available in paper or digital
form.
Appendix II to this chapter lists all the sets of guidelines that have been presented at
United Nations conferences and sessions of the Group of Experts. It also indicates which
countries have had their technical papers printed in volume II of the reports of the United
Nations Conferences.5
In addition to the guidelines for Austria published in World Cartography, vol. XVIII, in
1986, there have been guidelines published by various countries. For example, (as mentioned
above) guidelines for France were published as Guide de toponymie cartographique, an
information bulletin of the Institut Géographique National in 1989; toponymic guidelines for
Slovenia were published in Ljubljana in 1995; and those for Slovakia were published by the
Geodesy, Cartography and Cadastre Authority in 1999. In 2002, Poland published its most
recent guidelines (third revised edition), Germany published the fourth edition of its guidelines
and the Government of Cyprus published the first edition of its toponymic guidelines. In 2004,
Italy published the third edition of its guidelines.
By 1998, the use of the World Wide Web had put the production of a compendium of
various toponymic guidelines in a different light. The problem of having paper copies fall out of
date, and of undertaking the potentially costly programmes of republishing could now be
approached from another angle. At the Seventh United Nations Conference (1998), Estonia had
noted that its guidelines were already available on the Internet. Other countries (for instance,
Austria, Germany, Finland, Norway, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia) subsequently put their
documents on the Web (see Appendix III for the Web addresses).
The United Nations now also has a number of sets of the toponymic guidelines available
online. Those 11 sets of guidelines presented as technical papers at the Eighth United Nations
Conference in
2002 are available through the Group of Experts website
un.org/unsd/geoinfo/). In addition, the Map Collection of the Dag Hammarskjöld Library at the
United Nations in New York has scanned many back copies of papers presented at sessions of
the Group of Experts. Some toponymic guidelines are therefore available at http://www.un.org/
depts/dhl/maplib/ungegn.htm.
5 Most technical papers presented as limited distribution category (L) documents at the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and
Seventh United Nations Conferences on the Standardization of Geographical Names are contained in volume II of
the reports of those Conferences. Documents with other designations presented at those Conferences or to sessions
of the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names are not found in the published reports.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
It is recognized that the Internet is not the solution for all countries. However, it has been
emphasized that the goal is the widest possible dissemination and that countries should use
whatever media possibilities are available to them to make their toponymic guidelines widely
available.
Looking to the future
Several resolutions adopted at United Nations Conferences on the Standardization of
Geographical Names have addressed the need for toponymic guidelines for map and other
editors, for international use (see appendix IV) and some 35 countries have presented guidelines.
This is encouraging and makes important national details on the standardization of geographical
names available to names users internationally. However, 23 of these countries are European.
Only 6 countries in Asia, 3 in the Americas, 2 in Africa and 1 in Australasia have presented
guidelines. Hence, from the perspective of world coverage, the Group of Experts should still be
encouraging further participation in the project. To this end, the Chairs of the divisions of the
Group of Experts are encouraged to use step-by-step methods to develop guidelines for the
countries in their divisions that are unable to initiate this work themselves. To be sure, some
countries have made a move in this direction by preparing papers on such topics as romanization,
national standardization processes, administrative regions and new products that provide
standardized names for features and places in their own countries. This represents an important
beginning.
Guidelines should be distributed as widely as possible to cartographers and publishers.
The Internet now provides a solution for easier worldwide dissemination of toponymic
guidelines without the high costs of printing and distribution being incurred. The Web certainly
provides the medium for rapid communication of name changes and has become of increasing
importance in knowledge management. On the other hand, for the more
“permanent”
characteristics of guidelines, hard-copy editions remain invaluable reference tools for frequent
users.
However, whether the medium is paper or a digital one, the Group of Experts still faces
the challenge of the development of the actual fundamentals of names standardization processes
in all countries and the production in association therein of the toponymic guidelines for most of
the world.
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Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors, for international use (from the 1970s to the present)
Appendix I
Toponymic guidelines, as originally proposed by Dr. Josef Breu in his Circular No. 2, 12 December 1977, with the
additions, modifications and new numbering of 1981 (Circular Letter No. 20) shown in italics.1
Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors, for international usea
Name of individual country
1
Languages
1.1
General remarks
1.2
National language(s)
1.2.1 Legal situation and practical application in administration and official cartography
1.2.2 Alphabet(s) and transcription(s)
1.2.3 General spelling rules for geographical names
1.2.4 Pronunciation
1.2.5 Grammatical peculiarities that are essential for the treatment and understanding of geographical
names
1.2.6 Distribution of main dialects and their characteristics; how far are dialectal name forms adapted
to the standard form of the language(s)? (In the case of many African countries with English,
French, Portuguese or Spanish as official languages: distribution of main vernaculars and their
characteristics; how far are vernacular name forms adapted to the spelling of the official
language?); linguistic maps
1.3
Minority languages
1.3.1 - 1.3.6, as under 1.2
2
Names authorities and names standardization
2.1
National names authority. Aims, functions, rules, address
2.2
Provincial names authorities. Aims, functions, rules, addresses
2.3
Names standardization. Legal aspects, procedures, progress
3
Source material
3.1
Maps: map series containing standardized names. Which sheets of a series contain already standardized
names?
3.2
Gazetteers containing standardized names
4
Glossary of appellatives, adjectives and other words necessary for the understanding of maps. (As such
glossaries will serve the needs of foreign users they must contain also - and above all - words of the general
vocabulary.)
5
Abbreviations used on official maps; the decoding and meanings
6
Methods of differentiating toponyms from other text on national maps
Annex
Administrative maps
1 The title reflects modifications emanating from the eighth session of the United Nations Group of Experts on
Geographical Names, 1979; the Fourth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names,
1982; and the twelfth session of the Group of Experts, 1986. Item 6 follows a resolution adopted by the Fifth United
Nations Conference, 1987.
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Manual for the national standardization of geographical names
Appendix II
Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors for international use
Country
Year
Edition
Document
Venue
Pub. in
Location
vol. II
Algeria
2000
draft
WP.78
20th UNGEGN
New York
Australia
2002
E/CONF.94/CRP.19
8th UN Conf
Berlin
1992
E/CONF.85/L.64
6th UN Conf
New York
Austria
2002
See E/CONF.94/INF.80
8th UN Conf
Berlin
1998
E/CONF.91/INF.21
7th UN Conf
New York
1994
add.
WP.67
17th UNGEGN
New York
1992
rev.
E/CONF.85/L.14
6th UN Conf
New York
1992
add.
E/CONF.85/WP.41
6th UN Conf
New York
1991
rev.
WP.10
15th UNGEGN
New York
1986
World Cartography XVIII
1985
E/CONF.77/CRP.3
3rd UN Americas
New York
1982
E/CONF.74/L.2
4th UN Conf
Geneva
1981
WP.10
9th UNGEGN
New York
1979
WP.5
8th UNGEGN
New York
1975
prel.
Geogr. Namenbuch Österreich
Canada
2000
add.
WP.30 and Corr.1
20th UNGEGN
New York
1996
add.
WP.36
18th UNGEGN
Geneva
1992
rev.
E/CONF.85/L.47
6th UN Conf
New York
1989
rev.
WP.48
14th UNGEGN
Geneva
1985
E/CONF.77/CRP.7
3rd UN Americas
New York
1981
WP.16
9th UNGEGN
New York
China
1992
E/CONF.85/L.1
6th UN Conf
New York
1982
E/CONF.74/L.48
4th UN Conf
Geneva
Cyprus
2002
1st ed.
(published 2002; Lefkosia)
Czech Republic
2002
E/CONF.94/CRP.70
8th UN Conf
Berlin
1998
E/CONF.91/CRP.17
7th UN Conf
New York
1996
WP.52
18th UNGEGN
Geneva
1994
WP.28, p.3
17th UNGEGN
New York
Czechoslovakia 1987
E/CONF.79/INF/62
5th UN Conf
Montreal
Denmark
1982
E/CONF.77/L.14
4th UN Conf
Geneva
Estonia
1998
2nd ed.
E/CONF.91/INF.16
7th UN Conf
New York
1992
E/CONF.85/L.76
6th UN Conf
New York
Finland
2004
4th rev.
WP.49
22nd UNGEGN
New York
2002
E/CONF.94/CRP.76
8th UN Conf
Berlin
1998
3rd ed.
E/CONF.91/L.17
7th UN Conf
New York
1994
rev.
WP.63
17th UNGEGN
New York
1982
E/CONF.74/L.41
4th UN Conf
Geneva
1981
prel.
WP.37
9th UNGEGN
New York
France
1989
WP.44
14th UNGEGN
Geneva
(Guide de toponymie cartographique, 1989)
1985
E/CONF.77/CRP.1
3rd UN Americas
New York
1982
E/CONF.74/L.21
4th UN Conf
*
Geneva
1981
WP.21
9th UNGEGN
New York
149
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