Manual for the national standardization of geographical names (2006)

Beginning a programme

Staff size

The size of a supporting staff is about the same for all forms of national authorities. The

amount of work needed for standardization activities is a constant. Because of varying

conditions in different countries, many factors enter into the equation, making it difficult to

suggest staff size. Including the director and staff personnel, the number ranges between 4 and

10. Staff size for a single authority can also vary over time, depending on the workload, which

might be large in the beginning and less demanding later when maintenance is the main activity.

Staff qualifications

A support staff includes those with administrative functions and professionally

qualified people. Administrative/secretarial support is needed for processing the volume of

filing, typing and other office duties. Also, it is important to have staff with competence in using

computers in order to facilitate the office work and detailed information-handling undertaken.

Professional staff members are responsible for the collection, researching, and analysis

of toponymic information and should have training or education adequate to deal with

geographical, cartographic and linguistic problems. These needs will vary, depending on the

toponymic environment found in each country:

(a) Professional geographers and cartographers, with an understanding of geographical

name phenomena, are necessary. They need to have an understanding of

geographical features and terminology, and be capable of correctly identifying

entities (for example, landscape features) on maps of different scales and accuracy;

(b) Personnel familiar with historical research methodology are useful for identifying

and evaluating historical names usage found in documents;

needed to deal with linguistic concepts and questions. Knowledge of phonetic

systems, grammatical structures and orthography of relevant languages is a key

requirement for understanding and recording name information.

In the beginning, not every staff member needs to be expert in any of these areas. Experience

can be gained by working with professionals. Most important is an interest in the

standardization process and the ability to work as a team member so as to give a country the

best and fairest names programme possible.

Advisory committees and support organizations

In 1967, the First United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical

Names recommended that, when appropriate, provision be made for establishing cooperative

regional, local and/or advisory committees. The need for establishing one or more of these

committees is normally determined by the national authority. Advisory committees can be part

of the standardization process. They are useful as long as they demonstrate cooperation and

compliance with the policies and practices of the national authority.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Often, local support committees or organizations are able to investigate and resolve

names-related problems better than a national authority located in a capital city some distance

away. Support committees, with local involvement, can be sensitive to local situations

important in the determination of official names. It is recommended that the need for

regional, local and/or advisory committees be considered carefully. In the beginning, it might be

best, however, to delay their organization—at least until the national authority has developed

initial guiding principles, policies and procedures and become fully operational.

Advisory/support committees can be permanent or temporary, and organized by

particular language and/or cultural areas and/or according to political subdivisions of a

country. These committees may consist of key persons in local or provincial government;

teachers and professors from area schools, colleges and universities; and community leaders.

Committee membership may be voluntary or constitute part of regional government activity.

Besides investigating and reporting on local problems, regional and local committees are able to

investigate and collect toponymic information for the national programme and recommend

policies affecting the national standardization of names. Overall, they are able to reduce the

investigative and research costs of a names standardization programme.

Special toponymic experts

For advice, some national authorities use volunteer scholars expert in disciplines

pertinent to names standardization. For example, an expert might possess knowledge of a

particular minority language or be able to make professional recommendations on specific kinds

of issues, such as those associated with urban and administrative toponymy, or names related to

desert, coastal, mountain or underwater features. Special advisors may be permanent or

temporary, depending on the nature of the work and the length of time needed for completion

of the task.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Chapter VI

Standardization procedures

Establishing the policies, principles and procedures needed to guide

the committee in fulfilling its role; naming features crossing internal

and international boundaries

The success of a geographical names standardization programme depends on its ability to

meet the needs of government agencies and other organizations that rely on standard

names for their operations. Different users have different reference requirements. It would be

ideal to collect and standardize the written forms of all geographical names found in written and

spoken use throughout the country. However, a beginning programme should not overextend its

abilities. It is very difficult and costly to collect and process a large proportion of a country’s

names within a short period of time. However, one way to organize this cost-effectively would

be to adopt, as official, names found on a quality map series. These map-series names can then

be corrected or added to over time.

There is always a need to have standard names of major and minor features for activities

ranging from large-scale mapping or charting to effective maintenance of national, regional and

local government records. In the beginning, a standardization programme requires a practical

approach, one where priorities are established to meet immediate and important national needs.

Establishing guiding principles, policies and procedures

Major programmes with specific goals normally follow formalized courses of action. In

the case of toponymic standardization, these formalized processes are sometimes divided into

principles, policies and procedures.

Principles constitute the fundamental doctrines used for guiding the national

standardization, encompassing general adherence to local usage, use of a particular script, and

areas of responsibility.

Policies are rules covering specific details devised to deal with problems and the means

of implementing standardization. Formalized policies may include rules covering name changes,

treatment of derogatory names, names commemorating living persons, name duplication, and the

use of minority-language names.

Principles are seldom changed but policies may be changed over time to meet new

situations or to address unforeseen events.

Procedures deal with methods for carrying out names standardization according to

established principles and policies.

As one of its first activities following organization, a names authority needs to

formulate and adopt tentative guiding principles, policies and procedures for the national

standardization of geographical names. The formulation of these standardization rules requires

Standardization procedures

considerable care because they form the basis for a successful programme. Principles, policies

and procedures should address, for example:

(a) Rules for writing official (standard) names;

(b) General aspects of acceptance and treatment of names in multilingual areas;

entity;

(d) Treatment of minority-language names;

(e) Treatment of names derived from unwritten languages;

(f)

Clarification of the precise extent of the application of each name to a feature,

including the naming of the whole and parts of major features;

(g) Treatment of names established by legislation;

(h) Treatment of names that are questioned or contested.

It is suggested that the principles and policies formulated for national standardization

purposes be kept as practical and objective as possible. They should contain provisions that

guard against interference from special interest groups and against political pressure. Decisions

should not be arbitrary, nor based on personal opinions of correctness and appropriateness.

It is also desirable for operating rules to be conservative with regard to changing names.

In such cases, there should be assurance that each name change reflects local usage or preference

and that changing a name is in the best interests of national standardization. Hasty decisions

often lead to reversals in the future.

The names authority should ensure that adequate publicity is given not only to its

existence, organization and mission but also to its principles, policies and procedures for

achieving national standardization. This includes informing persons in government offices,

private organizations and other groups of the procedures to be followed when submitting to the

authority: reports on controversial or inconsistently used names, proposals for naming unnamed

features, and changes to existing names. This is done by publishing the rules for all to see and by

creating standard forms for general use. These documents make clear the kind of information

that is needed in order for proposals to be processed for submission to the names authority.

Decision factors

When dealing with names problems, members of a names authority are guided by

established principles, policies and procedures. Problems, however, exist in a variety of

forms and gradations. They occur when there are different perspectives on the name itself, on its

spelling or its written form, or on its application to a specific feature. Inconsistencies and

ambiguity occur, for example, when local citizens use different names for the same feature, when

locally used names differ from those used on maps or in other documents and records, and when

different names for the same entity are used in maps and other records.

Policies in existence at any point in time are unlikely to cover all individual situations.

As particular problems arise, it may be possible to fine-tune policies or establish new ones to

meet new, different or evolving situations. Decision-making will always require judgement (and

documented reasons for the judgement). For example, if names decisions are based on locally

used names and only one official name is allowed, would the name usage of a few newly settled

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

families in a sparsely populated area justify changing names that have been in use on maps or

other documents for one hundred years?

A few factors that could affect policies and name decisions are:

(a) Population density and degree of local usage;

(b) Number of years during which a local name has been used;

was to be changed.

Social, cultural, ethnic and political factors frequently enter into naming situations and

require special consideration. Many of these can be addressed by the principles and policies of

the names authority. However, there often is a human factor that cannot be handled completely

by rules. Invariably, situations occur where people involved with the names decision process

view problems differently. Discussion of involved issues could help narrow the divergence of

opinion. Nevertheless, there are times when each member of the staff or committee must

compromise on his or her own opinion for the greater benefit of the programme.

The types of information needed when names problems and proposals are being

considered are:

(a) Current local oral usage, its amount and extent;

(b) Current and historical usage on maps and in official documents;

(d) Name duplication within the area;

(e) Offensive or derogatory word(s) in a name;

(f) Name length and acceptability;

(g) Regional government and advisory committee recommendations;

(h) Social, cultural and political concerns;

(i)

Clear application of the name to a feature/area.

United Nations recommendations

On the subject of principles, policies and procedures, the First United Nations

Conference on the Standardization of Geographical names recommended (in resolution I/4,

1967) that:

(a) Unnecessary changing of names be avoided;

(b) The spelling of geographical names be as much as possible in accordance with

the current orthographic practice of the country, with due regard to dialect

forms;

elements;

(d) Where some names occur in varying or grammatical forms, the national names

authority should consider making one of those forms the official standard

name (for names that can be declined, it should normally be the nominative case);

(e) In all countries in whose languages the definite article could enter into

geographical names, the national names authority should determine which

Standardization procedures

names contain the definite article and standardize them accordingly; and for

languages in which both definite and indefinite forms exist for all or most

names, that standardization be based on one or the other form;

(f) All countries set up standards for the use of abbreviations of elements in their

geographical names; and

(g) A system be devised in each country for the treatment of compound names (for

example, whether hyphens or mid-name capital letters are to be used).

Basic considerations

A newly organized authority needs to consider two basic questions when establishing

official standard names.

The first concerns the basis on which names are selected for standardization. It is

possible, for example, to choose names arbitrarily without reference to existing usage. However,

this procedure is not recommended because it would introduce conflict and confusion into the

naming process by creating two naming systems in a country: one based on local usage and the

other on government usage. Instead, it is recommended that precedence be given to those

names in established local/public use. It is good policy to integrate administrative and

academic judgements with the preferences of local people. Exceptions will occur when

particular names cannot be adopted because of conflict with other principles or policies, or when

public/local usage is variable or ephemeral.

The second question relates to the meaning and purpose of names standardization.

Univocity, the principle whereby one standard name is assigned to each geographical entity

(place, feature or area) at any point in time, represents the ideal toponymic standardization.

Every effort should be made to adhere to that principle so as to avoid ambiguity. It can

sometimes be difficult to achieve this one name/one feature ideal, especially in multilingual areas

where name usage is divided along language lines. In those cases, the names authority could:

(a) Choose only one name, based on specific criteria, as the official form;

(b) Recognize and make available for use in other languages, one or more names (that

is to say allonyms—Glossary, 005), not equal to the official form in rank, but

chosen for use in specified contexts; or

most likely be shown on maps where scale permitted) (see figures V and VI).

A national authority may adopt more than one official name for a geographical entity. It

is suggested, however, that one of the names be recommended for international usage.

Recommended standardization procedures

For the standardizing of geographical names processed individually, both office and field

research should be as complete as possible, providing information on the following points

(resolution I/4, 1967):

Standardization procedures

(a) Written and spoken form of the name and its meaning according to local

inhabitants;

(b) Spelling in cadastral documents and land registers;

(d) Spelling in census reports, gazetteers and other relevant documents of value;

(e) Spelling used by local administrative and technical services.

This recommendation is based on a procedure whereby the names of a country are

standardized one at a time. A collection of official names is then built up through the years. In

some countries, this might be a good procedure, especially if the names coverage is already

stable, with few questionable names. The process in itself is costly and slow, and may not meet

immediate needs.

The best procedure seems to lie between standardizing names one at a time and

standardizing large numbers of names at one time. For example, established nationally

known names found on official maps can be standardized as a group, and local names and the

names of minor features can be collected, reported, researched and standardized individually.

Cartotoponymy and standardization

In most countries, mapping and name standardization are complementary

processes. Mapping provides one of the best and most efficient ways of promulgating official

names. Cartotoponymy is the process whereby the official written form of each name is applied

to a geographical entity shown graphically on a map by point, line and area symbols, and where

the symbology of each entity can change depending upon scale. In a digital environment, a

toponym can be stored as an attribute of a point, line or area (that is to say, polygon) feature.

This mutual relationship may be used to advantage when beginning a standardization

programme. It is important to consider how to handle existing names found on maps and in

other publications, and to decide on the best and most practical procedures for standardizing

large numbers of names as quickly as possible. If a relatively reliable and current series of maps

cover most, if not all, of the country, and if the names on those maps conform to normal written

forms of names for the respective language or languages, it might be possible to recognize and

declare those names and their applications on the maps to be official. The few names found to

be unacceptable, at variance or in error for one reason or another can be corrected formally by

the authority (or its staff) when they are brought to its attention.

This procedure for standardizing large numbers of names quickly cannot be used,

however, if many names on the maps do not conform to established local usage or acceptable

orthographic criteria.

For public knowledge and use, the names authority can publish periodically notice of the

approved name changes and new names on a map series, as special lists or computer files.

Together, the map series and “correction and addition” notices allow users to easily determine

official toponymy for any area and to learn of updates. Cartographers also can keep a record of

changes for the purpose of correcting maps at the time of a new edition or printing.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Today’s digital databases make it easier to carry out continuous updating of names files.

They also allow users to identify name changes or newly official names in particular time

frames. However, the concepts of names standardization remain the same.

Names of features on or across boundaries

Official boundaries between countries and between administrative/political subdivisions

within a country affect naming practices and standardization. The use of names for places,

features and areas that lie on or across boundaries is often influenced by factors indigenous to the

respective sides of the line. Adequate principles, policies and procedures can help prevent

misunderstandings and problems that might arise in connection with the treatment of such

names. Variation in name use from one side of the boundary to the other is often due to

differences in language and/or traditions that could account for the existence of the boundary itself.

Name differences on internal boundaries are generally easier to resolve when a single

national names authority has jurisdiction over the area; but even here, it is wise to approach

differences diplomatically so as not to impair the integrity of the names authority. A

compromise may be possible.

In the case of named features that lie on or across international boundaries,

cooperation and agreement would be mutually beneficial to each country and its people.

Where linguistic, cultural or historical names development might prevent compromise, each

country must go its own way and agree to disagree when mutual standardization is impossible.

Although names differences should be respected, it is still practical, whenever possible, to

cooperate and attempt to reduce the number of names differences between countries.

Compromise is often possible when spelling differences are minor, when names are ephemeral

and not well established, or when most of a feature is located in one country. It is also worth the

effort to attempt to agree on and coordinate the approval of new names and proposed changes of

names that occur on boundaries.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Chapter VII

Office treatment of geographical names

Evaluation of material by office staff; keeping paper and digital

records of names and their cartographic extent—a time-consuming,

but very essential task; some suggested office research tools

Staff research

It is economically desirable to standardize most names according to established principles,

policies and procedures. Research, however, is often required when there are particular problems

concerning name choice and application. A clear understanding of these problems and their

relevant factors is important. Evaluation by staff, and treatment and processing of

geographical names are necessary parts of the standardization process. Staff duties involve

a variety of possible procedures, including:

(a) Collection of name information;

(b) Investigation and research of names and their applications;

(d) Dissemination of standard names information to a variety of users;

(e) Provision of direct support to a national names committee through the preparation

of toponymic reports and other information papers important in the decision-

making process;

(f)

Preparation of pre-field investigation material and instructions, and the review of

information submitted after fieldwork has been completed.

Name records and letter files¹⁷ )

The process of standardization requires the gathering and presentation of toponymic

information in a format that is easily understood. Orderly evidence allows clear comprehension

of required details for decision-making. This recorded evidence is obtained from:

(a) Documentary investigation

(the systematic review and cataloguing of name

information from maps and other publications available to office staff);

(b) Field investigation (the systematic collection of local names usage).

Organized name information can be stored in computer files and/or on paper forms.

Regardless of the method or methods used, a large proportion of office time will be spent

developing and managing these records. The kind and amount of information to be collected

to achieve standardization goals are worth careful consideration. An overly ambitious effort

might defeat what is intended to be a practical programme designed simply to standardize the

written forms of names and their applications.

¹⁷ ) Further information on this topic is found in part two, chap. IV.

Office treatment of geographical names

Figure VII.

Working in a geographical names office

The minimum or most basic information for a toponym need only be its written

form, identification of the geographical entity to which the name applies, and location of

the entity. Experience has shown, however, that it is important to furnish more information for

each name record. Users need enough information to locate easily the entity under consideration,

to prevent misunderstanding of the intended application of the name, and to be aware of other

names that refer (or referred) to the same entity.

The optimal fields of information needed for an official name record include:

(a) The written form of the official name;

(b) All other known variant names currently or historically used to refer to the same

feature, place or area;

through, inter alia:

• Its location within a civil/administrative division;

• Geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude) and/or topographical

(plane rectangular) coordinates;

• The standard series map(s) on which the entity is located;

(d) A standard descriptive term (sometimes referred to as a designator, class, feature type

or category) that clearly identifies the kind of entity named (for example, lake,

stream, hill, mountain, bay).

This list of data fields can be expanded to cover other kinds of information that may be

useful and appropriate, such as:

(a) Elevation;

(b) Population;

(d) Pronunciation of the name and other linguistic information;

(e) Historical information about the named entity and the naming event (name origin).

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Unless it is part of the delegated mission of a new names authority, the provision of these

supplemental data should likely be omitted, as it will increase the time required to carry out the

programme. The collection of additional information of this kind could be determined at a later

phase of file development.

The time and difficulty of ongoing maintenance of information for which the office

is not directly responsible should be considered before including such extra data fields.

When recording names, special care should be taken in each case to ascertain the generic

term (for example, “Bay” in “Long Bay”; “Mont” in “Mont Blanc”) used locally for each name,

unless the name in local usage exists without a generic. The generic term, often a separate word,

is an integral part of most geographical names and should be included as part of the official

name. Of course, some written languages incorporate the generic within the name itself as a one-

word form. When necessary to prevent misunderstanding, this can be clarified for people

unfamiliar with the particular written language. The meanings of generic terms used locally and

any meanings at variance with standard usage should be recorded.

Card files

A number of name files existing today are based on the use of card files. Each

geographical name with associated information is recorded on a card, and the accumulated cards

are arranged in a systematic order by name (for example, alphabetically, as appropriate to the

language). The files are often arranged according to major administrative divisions of a country.

Card files were actively used in the past and are still being used in some instances for research

and documentary purposes. However, the use of computer files has increased considerably in

recent years and is becoming the primary method of name information-handling. Archival

collections of cards converted to computer files can be retained for backup purposes (see figure VIII).

Computer files

A major task in the office treatment of names is simply that of information-processing.

An efficient names support staff requires easy access to large numbers of names records

and must have the ability to retrieve, sort, correlate and analyse the information rapidly

and accurately. This is best accomplished through the use of computer storage and retrieval

systems, sometimes referred to as automated data processing (ADP). The automated equipment

developed in the last fifty years offers a powerful tool that is well suited for supporting a national

names standardization programme. Many countries today find the computer indispensable for

filing, processing, manipulating and publishing toponymic information. In this age of

technology, with computer storage of data, and with the proper equipment and software, maps

and official names can be generated for any specified area of a country.

Simple word-processing, spreadsheet or database software can be used to store

toponymic records. A careful review of appropriate data fields, convenient loading and updating

processes, and required outputs should be completed before starting. This will help assure the

selection of suitable software that can handle all the diacritical marks needed and the development

Office treatment of geographical names

of appropriately designed data storage. It is recommended that the software selected be

compatible with the digital cartographic systems (for example, those of the national mapping

authority) for which it is intended to provide input.

Using the Internet¹⁸ )

The Seventh United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names

recognized the potential of the Internet to realize national and international geographical names

standardization goals. It also recognized the importance of countries’ preserving their

individual toponymic heritage and promoting the international use of their nationally

standardized names by all available means, including the Internet. In its resolution VII/9,¹⁹

the Conference recommended that country toponymic websites be established and used for

a variety of purposes, including:

(a) Information on the standardization of geographical names;

(b) Toponymic guidelines;

(d) Nationally standardized names (in other words, making them widely available);

(e) Interactive capabilities for handling geographical names enquiries;

(f)

Facilitation of the international exchange of toponymic data.

Computer database and Internet training courses are part of the United Nations training

programmes. Technical papers presented at United Nations Conferences on the Standardization

of Geographical Names and sessions of the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical

Names should be consulted for details and examples of toponymic data storage. In addition,

reference to the website of the Group of Experts (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/) and the

website of the Group of Experts Working Group on Training Courses in Toponymy

(http://toponymycourses.geog.uu.nl/) will provide leads on obtaining further materials.

Geographical names and base map files

Geographical names form an essential element of a country’s spatial data infrastructure

and official names are frequently used as an entry point into other geo-referenced

(geographically referenced) databases.

It is often necessary to identify official names in a particular geographical area. A

map provides the user with a spatial context and the ability to visually identify the extent of

a named entity, together with its location relative to other named entities. Maps are

important tools for evaluating toponymic information. A base map (paper) file can effectively

complement computer files by acting as a “worksheet”.

¹⁸ ) Some selected websites relevant to geographical names standardization, providing locators for geographical

names authorities, searchable toponymic databases, etc., are found in part two, chap. X.

¹⁹ See Seventh United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, New York, 13-22

January 1998, vol. I, Report of the Conference (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.98.I.18), chap. III.

Office treatment of geographical names

Base map files usually consist of a set of intermediate-scale maps that cover the whole

country and on which official geographical names are identified with the appropriate features.²⁰

Annotating conventional paper maps that can be kept in the office is a means of collecting and

recording names not previously shown on these maps. Those names not already printed on the

maps can be carefully added by manual annotations. When necessary, symbols can be drawn on

the map, allowing names to be identified with their geographical entities. Different colours can

be used to identify particular aspects of the names or features.

Other files

The geographical names authority office will accumulate various kinds of records relative

to particular name problems. These documents are important and worth keeping for future

reference and research purposes. Most will be in the form of worksheets, letters, special maps,

legal documents and reports. These various records can be kept together in files organized in a

suitable way: for example, alphabetically by subject; by geographical name and/or by civil

administrative division; or, possibly, according to map sheet number or map sheet series.

If possible, these documents should be scanned into digital form for easy retrieval and

viewing, as well as for archival purposes. Provision should also be made for associating the

information with individual records of the national geographical names database.

These background files and name records become an important national cultural

resource. The collection will be valuable not only for standardization and cartographic

purposes, but also for students of toponymy and scholars in socio-linguistic and historical fields.

To ensure the continued availability of records in future years, there should be planning for and

implementation of the archiving of materials.

Office research tools

Most office research supporting names standardization involves documentary

investigation of geographical names. It entails the review, evaluation and collection of names

²⁰ Technology for scanning conventional paper maps has now decreased in cost. This encourages the creation of a

link from an automated geographical names database to a digital base map series, thus enhancing the standardization

process, through increased visual and spatial representation. Furthermore, “real time” corrections and additions of

geographical names to the base map series are possible. In a digital environment, the scale of the map can be

changed at will, allowing greater flexibility for viewing the application of names. However, names deletion as part

of map generalization, as the map scale becomes smaller, is still not a fully automated process.

The official map series of a country may include several scales. Moreover, each map at each scale should reflect

the official names of the country from that country’s official names database. Furthermore, that database should be

the only source of names for any product of that country’s Government. Base map files represent an important

means of making official geographical names available to government departments and the general public. All

digital products should be updated according to a well-established and well-planned schedule. Conventional (paper)

products should also reflect the official names, although, in reality because of cost, these products do not normally

reflect changes or additions until they are revised or reprinted.

Although a nation’s cartographic programme is likely the most significant user of the names made official by a

geographical names authority, other government and public users should not be forgotten. Decision-making and

records of the country’s official geographical names database might indeed include toponyms that would not be

shown on base map files but that are perceived to be of public value (see conference resolution VIII/10, 2002,

in annex).

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

information from maps and other publications, manuscripts, reports and digital sources. The

reference tools needed in a staff support office comprise a specialized library made up of maps,

books, and other publications, and access to the Internet. However, it may not be necessary to

collect all these items in the names office if the office is located close to a major library.

It is useful to have easy access to the following kinds of reference materials, if they exist:

(a) Complete set of official topographic maps that cover the country at the largest scale

available;

(b) Complete sets of all other official maps and charts that cover all, or parts, of the

country;

(d) Old, out-of-date and/or historical maps and charts;

(e) Special books and other publications that contain lists of geographical names

(postal guides, shipping guides, national and local gazetteers, railroad and bus

timetables);

(f)

National, regional and commercial atlases and national encyclopedias;

(g)

Books on national or local geography, geology and history;

(h)

Books on geographical names and general toponymy;

(i)

Books and other kinds of publications that deal with various languages used in the

country;

(j)

Census data, in, for example, statistical yearbooks;

(k)

Other yearbooks and special publications, such as mountaineering guides, that are

based on the use of geographical names for reference purposes.

Increasingly, material that is not easily accessible in paper form can now be located

through the Internet. However, the quality of the sources of information consulted must be

carefully considered.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Chapter VIII

Researching name problems

Research is needed to provide committee members with the relevant

material required to make decisions on, for example, names that are

inconsistently used, requests for name changes and proposals of

names not in local use

The amount of research required to support a standardization programme depends on procedures,

principles, policies and other decision-related criteria formulated by the national authority. For

example, a procedure that establishes a large body of official names at one time (such as those

found on a map or standard series maps) requires little or no research provided the

cartotoponymy is considered reliable. The collection or recording of accepted names from maps

or charts becomes mainly a clerical exercise. However, names that are inconsistently used, or

proposals for name changes or for the adoption of new names, require documentary and, in

some cases, field research.

Inconsistently used names

It is recommended that the names authority develop a special form for reporting

names that are found to be used inconsistently. Directions on the use of the form should

specify the kind of information needed by the national authority for processing and rendering a

decision.²¹ In general, it is possible to state that such problems of ambiguity or inconsistency

occur when:

(a) More than one name exists in local oral usage for the same feature;

(b) Local oral usage applies the same name to two (or more) different features;

(d) Local records differ from local oral usage;

(e) National or regional maps or charts use names or spellings of a name that differ

from those existing in local oral usage or local records;

(f)

Maps or charts apply a name to a feature different from the one to which the name

is applied locally, or apply the name in a way that is different from the way it is

applied locally;

(g) Maps and charts disagree on the name, its spelling or its application.

Most differences between published and local usage are not discovered in the office.

They are brought to the attention of the names authority by:

(a) Letters of complaint received from local officials and citizens;

(b) Reports received from local and regional names committees and special advisory

committees;

other government officials.

²¹ Such a form could include space for recording the preferred name as decided by the names authority, as well as

the reason for its decision.

Researching name problems

Name change requests

It is useful to confine the meaning of “name change” to situations in which there is a

request to change formally a locally well-established or official name for a specific reason

(see figure IX). For example, a request to change could be in response to a duplicate name, a

derogatory name or a name no longer in local use.

Many name change requests are made to suit personal, political, cultural or

administrative purposes that may or may not be of general benefit to the community. Whatever

the reason, the staff is required to undertake research to gather information, including supporting

and opposing evidence, which is then submitted to the names authority for a decision.

It is desirable for operating guidelines to be conservative in regard to changing official

names. The names authority should have a clear idea of the reason behind a name change,

whether it has been adopted in local usage, and whether the change is in the interest of a national

programme. Principles and/or policies of the names authority normally cover the treatment of

name change issues.

Proposals of names for unnamed features

A national authority may be asked to approve an official name for an entity that is

thought not to have a local or published name. Proposals of this kind would most often apply

to natural features and to features under construction (for example, dams, reservoirs, etc.),

provided the national authority has jurisdiction over these names. Procedures for submitting and

handling proposals of this kind need to be outlined in established principles or policies. The staff

must ensure that the procedures are followed.

Research focused on a variety of documents and maps, and communication with local

officials and committees are recommended for each case to ascertain whether the feature indeed

has no current name in published or oral usage. Also, care should be taken to learn whether a

proposed name is acceptable to local citizens and governments and to any national agencies that

may have jurisdiction over, or a special interest in, the geographical entity being considered.

Research procedures

Staff research procedures vary depending on the kind of submission involved.

Procedures depend on whether the case involves inconsistently used names, a name change

request, or a proposal for a new name. A staff researcher must investigate, collect and evaluate

evidence relevant to each case; and if the authority is committee-based, all evidence should be

given to the committee so that the best decision can be made, in accordance with established

principles, policies and procedures.

A name and its entity

Each name submitted for committee consideration must be referenced to a

particular place, feature or area. A toponym and the entity to which it refers are inextricably

related. Major mistakes can be made if concerns are concentrated only on the name rather than

Researching name problems

on both the name and its application. Here, identification of the geographical entity on a map is

crucial to understanding its location and spatial relationships. When the same name is applied to

two nearby features, in two or more published sources, staff research is necessary to determine

the appropriate application of the toponym.

Report forms

Members of committees need complete good-quality reports to enable them to render

decisions. Report forms are useful for achieving consistent research of complex problems

and should allow clear presentation of information. These forms should be designed to

record data in an organized way. They ensure that primary evidence is collected and not

accidentally overlooked. All documents associated with a particular case should be attached to

the report form.

After the report forms and associated documents have been used, they should be stored

for future reference. One approach is to store these papers alphabetically in a subject or name

file; another possibility is to file them according to the appropriate map sheet number. If the

records have been digitally scanned, they should be archived at this time.

Pertinent official name information is entered into the nation’s official geographical

names database. Variant names associated with official names are also stored in the official

database and catalogued according to established cross-referencing procedures.

Toponymic research

Research includes the review and evaluation of geographical names used on maps and

charts, and in publications. The use and meaning of geographical names and their written forms

require careful investigation, particularly when more than one language is involved. Research

entails evaluating field and other name reports; assessing research and investigative reports

produced by regional and local committees; checking information with local informants;

and preparing comprehensive reports for submission to the national names authority for

decision-making.

A good researcher will attempt to gain a full understanding of the nature of each

name being considered by reviewing the:

(a) Toponymic history of the geographical entity involved;

(b) Languages involved and their written forms;

(d) Special ethnic, cultural and political interests;

(e) Local usage and local preferences;

(f) Degree and reliability of name usage;

(g) Options with regard to standardization.

A topic that may come under the heading of toponymic research is the problem of names

transliteration (that is to say, conversion into another script), although it may often be solved by

existing (for example, United Nations-adopted) transliteration systems. This problem arises:

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

(a) In multi-scriptual countries (that is to say, those having more than one official

script);

(b) If romanization of the standardized toponyms is to be effected in countries with

non-Roman script, as recommended in resolutions adopted by the United Nations

Conferences on the Standardization of Geographical Names.

It is suggested that the names authority deal with this task either directly or by delegating it to an

expert body.

Working with a names committee

Clear communication between the staff and a names committee is vital. The only way

members of the committee can make intelligent decisions on individual cases is to have access to

information collected during the conduct of research. Appropriate evidence in each case must

be submitted to members of the committee in a complete, balanced and unbiased manner.

This can best be done by means of reports with pertinent information for each case shown in a

fixed format. Also, appropriate and immediately available map coverage for each case is

important.

A qualified staff person should attend all committee meetings and be prepared to answer

detailed questions and clarify information about each toponym being considered. The staff

person should also be able to provide technical advice on the languages involved, and, if asked,

offer recommendations concerning the issues being discussed.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Chapter IX

Field collection of names²² )

Field collection is the ideal method for gathering names in local use;

pre-field preparation; procedures for field investigation; recording

and reporting the information; some thoughts on fieldwork in

multilingual areas and where names are in unwritten languages

Field treatment of geographical names involves the collection of toponymic information through

personal interviews with a select number of informants who use local names on a regular basis in

their everyday language. It also includes local investigation of the written forms of names, such

as those used on signs and in local records. Field investigation carried out by knowledgeable

individuals is the ideal method for obtaining information about the local use of

geographical names and their applications. In fact, it is the only means by which some

toponymic information can be obtained, especially that involving linguistic data. Just as

important, field investigation is one of the best ways to discover differences between established

official names and those in local usage.²³

Field collection of names provides the basis for decision-making with respect to

authorizing toponyms for cartographic and documentary use. Equally important, a body of local

knowledge and a part of the region’s heritage are preserved through the collection of these

locally used names (perhaps previously maintained only in oral tradition).

Fieldwork is an expensive and time-consuming process (see figure X). Every effort

should be made to reduce costs by using correspondence, telephone or e-mail to acquire some

basic local toponymic information. Few names authorities have the resources necessary to carry

out full-scale field investigations, except for the coverage of small areas.

A fieldworker most commonly collects names by conducting meetings with individuals

and using maps and aerial photos to gather the names of places and features. A variation on this

approach is to arrange for a number of local informants to come together as a group to discuss

the names in local use.²⁴ More difficult to arrange, but potentially very effective, is the

fieldworker’s travel with one or more informants (by road, river, etc.) for the purpose of

identifying names of features as they are seen, and marking these entities on maps and/or taking

Global Positioning System (GPS) readings at the named locations.

²² ) The social and cultural aspects of the collection and preservation of toponyms are examined in more detail in

part two, chap V.

²³ A detailed manual on the collection of names in the field entitled Méthodologie des inventaires toponymiques was

developed by the Commission de toponymie du Québec, Canada, (author: Hélène Hudon). It was made available in

English in 1987 with the assistance of the Ontario Geographic Names Board as A Manual for the Field Collection of

Geographical Names, published by the Queen’s Printer of Ontario, Canada.

²⁴ This approach to fieldwork is not dealt with in depth in this publication. However, a detailed description of a

step-by-step approach for the systematic collection of geographical names developed through working in Inuit

communities in Canada is found in: Guide to the Field Collection of Native Geographical Names, provisional ed.

compiled by the Canadian Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (now the Geographical Names Board of

Canada) (Ottawa, 1992).

Field collection of names

The presence of tape recorders during interviews may be very useful, but their use entails

careful consideration and preparation, as informants may well feel less at ease under such

circumstances. Nevertheless, in certain situations tape recordings of the names can prove very

useful, for example, in cases where the local language has no standard written form, where local

dialects are involved or where information might later be used with respect to language

preservation.

National standardization, however, is a cooperative programme, as noted in resolutions

adopted by the United Nations Conferences on the Standardization of Geographical Names (for

example, Conference resolution I/4 A: 1967), in which the Conference recommended that

the national geographical names authority make full use of the services of surveyors,

cartographers, geographers, linguists and any other experts who might help the authority

to carry out its operations efficiently. It is possible to enlist the help not only of surveyors and

field-mapping personnel but also of local and regional names authorities whose work may

already include the collection of local name information. University and government linguists,

geographers and geologists who periodically work in the field may also provide assistance. In

some countries where field experience is an academic requirement, trained volunteer college

students have been used successfully for field enquiries.

The work of obtaining toponymic information in the field can be divided into three

phases, of which the first and last are best performed in the staff support office, regardless of

who does the fieldwork. These phases are:

(a) Pre-field preparation;

(b) Field investigation;

Pre-field preparation

An important phase of fieldwork is the preparation carried out in the office before field

assignments are made. Office preparation can reduce the amount of time spent and cost

incurred in the fieldwork, and it can ensure that the work accomplished is complete. Pre-

field preparation includes:

(a) Identifying known name questions and problems;

(b) Identifying local informants and providing introductions to local leaders;

supplies the field investigator might need;

(d) Planning the logistics needed for travel and recommending the most feasible and

economical routes for meeting and interviewing informants.

It is useful to prepare a field operation map or series of maps that cover the work area,

along with a set of instructions for the fieldworker’s guidance. This material is best prepared in

the office, where an in-depth geographical, cultural and language study of the investigation area

can be made. Field instructions generally require the fieldworker to verify all nomenclature in a

map area: the names, their spellings and their applications by the local people.

Field collection of names

In rare cases, a map might already show named entities for which no local names are

known to exist. Many of these names could have national and historical connections. Many

probably have enjoyed long-established map use and, with few exceptions, should be kept

as references for a wider audience.

It is important to retain as well as collect names of historical significance, that is to say,

names that have fallen into disuse or names of features that no longer exist. Experience has

shown that while these names might be of little value on current maps, there is a wide and varied

user community interested in them. A nation’s official geographical names database should serve

more than cartographic applications. Applied toponymy has uses in numerous areas, of which

cartography is but one.

Field instructions list questions and potential problems that have been identified by office

research. Each question or problem can be keyed to annotated numbers or letter symbols on the

fieldwork maps. It is also possible to annotate questions and problems on the map border, with

lead lines to particular features on the face of the map.

Figure XI.

Planning for local fieldwork

Since time and travel in the field entail considerable expense, the more that can be

done in the office to make things easier or simpler for the field investigator, the better. This

is particularly true if the field investigators are people employed by other government

organizations, such as surveyors or field engineers who are doing toponymic investigations as

part of a cooperative effort and in addition to their regular duties and might not have either

previous toponymic experience or appropriate training or preparation. If possible and

appropriate, it is useful for the field investigator to be able to review the work done by office

personnel before going into the field, in order to discuss and resolve possible questions regarding

pre-field material.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

It might be useful for the field person to have some advance information concerning:

(a) Logical or appropriate contacts in the work areas, with a list of possible informants

who are known to be knowledgeable about specific toponymic issues;

(b) Locations of interpreters;

(d) Communications and transportation;

(e) Special protocol matters;

(f) Known administrative/linguistic divisions in the area to be worked.

More specifically, office staff should bring to the attention of the fieldworker all

toponymic questions and possible problems learned from documentary research. Certainly

those cases where variance is found between names in primary government maps and other

publications should be identified. Local information can then be collected to help resolve the

discrepancies. The field investigator can also be asked to:

(a) Determine whether places, features and areas not named on available maps and

other publications are named locally;

(b) Indicate the limits or extents of large and perhaps less easily delineated named

features, according to local usage (for example, plains, mountain ranges, ridges);

(d) Identify and record names duplicated within the area, and how they are

differentiated in everyday conversation;

(e) Record languages involved and name meanings;

(f)

Record the gender, approximate age and ethnic/language background of persons

interviewed along with the toponyms collected from each;

(g) Identify and record locally used written forms of names found on signs and in

records.

After pre-field preparation work has been completed, the work maps, overlays, report forms and

other materials are assembled for easy use.

Field investigation: procedures

The purpose of toponymic field investigation is to learn how local people use

geographical names in referring to elements of their environment. The process involves

verification of names and their applications already published on maps, and the collection

of names in local use that are not found on maps. A visit to an area or community could be

brief (part of a day) or longer (several days). The length of time spent in an area depends on the

nature of the assignment or assignments.

If toponymic investigation is limited in time, or is carried out in a sparsely populated

area, the job of interviewing is less involved. Only a few people need be contacted and, in most

cases, the fieldworker will randomly interview whoever can be found.

Field collection of names

Of course, a more extensive field programme requires greater organization. In such

cases, initial community contacts are made before interviewing in order to learn about the

community, its people and geography and, more importantly, the names and locations of persons

to be interviewed.

Field investigation: training

It would be ideal if people who were expert in field interviewing techniques and

toponymic studies were always the ones to carry out the verification and collection of

geographical names. However, this is not always possible. Because of practical considerations,

sometimes people doing the work have little training in either subject area. They might be

surveyors, topographers or administrators to whom investigation of name usage has been

delegated as an adjunct to their regular duties. Nevertheless, good fieldwork can be

accomplished by such people if they take an interest in the work, have a professional attitude and

are provided with appropriate guidelines concerning interview and recording procedures, and the

nature and quantity of information needed by the names authority. This can best be achieved

through the use of concise field instructions prepared by the office staff. It may be possible

for experienced persons in the office or at a college or university to provide a short training

course in field procedures.²⁵ )

Initial contacts

It is an advantage for a fieldworker to have a letter of introduction to an important or

well-known person in the area to be worked. A list of possible contacts prepared by the office

staff will assist in the initial introductions to people who could probably identify good local

informants.

Without a list of contacts, it is still possible to find someone

(teacher, librarian,

postmaster, doctor, area officer) who knows good local name informants. The local general store

is often a good place to begin in a village or small town. It is frequently a gathering place for

sharing local news and for social interaction.

Depending on the political/social make-up of the area, it might be good and appropriate

protocol for the fieldworker to first contact the local head person, like the chief or mayor, to

explain his or her presence in the area. In some jurisdictions, formal approval may be necessary

before fieldwork can begin. In sparsely populated areas, the fieldworker cannot necessarily

depend on predetermined contacts, but must rely for the interviews on individuals found at

isolated farms or ranches.

Selection and number of informants

After initial contacts have been made, helpful knowledge of the geography of an area and

its people has been gathered, and a list of possibly good informants has been created, the field

investigator faces the most exacting part of the job: the selection of and meeting with individual

informants. Because of cost constraints, the selection and number of people interviewed are

important considerations.

²⁵ )An example of instructions to surveyors is provided in part two, chap. VIII.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Figure XII. Discussion with village leaders prior to collection of local toponyms

in Brunei Darussalam

Older men and women often have a greater knowledge of an area’s geography and

history and may be more familiar with local geographical names. However, a sampling of

younger people should not be overlooked because they might provide insight into possible shifts

in name usage between generations.

All information must be reported without bias. It is not the role of fieldworkers to

decide on the selection of official names. However, this does not preclude comments or

recommendations from fieldworkers who, because of their presence at a particular

location, might have special information concerning the toponyms and specific toponymic

problems.

The number of informants needed for a good sampling of geographical name usage

depends on various factors including:

(a) Size of the area being covered;

(b) Its population density;

(d) Complexity of name problems found;

(e) Number of cultural groups and languages involved;

(f)

Money available for the job.

The number of informants needed to confirm names already on maps and the location of

the features to which they are applied need not be large. However, where inconsistency in the use

of names exists, more in-depth investigation is required in order for adequate information to be

provided to a names authority. In areas of sparse population, one or two area administrators,

forest or park rangers, game wardens or mine operators might be the only available informants

who know the toponyms of the area.

Field collection of names

In areas where people are nomadic or travel seasonally on land or along the coast, more

than one name may be used for various features. For example, different nomadic groups may use

different names for the features they pass.

A fieldworker needs to be aware that in some cultures, certain places bear names that

are considered taboo. Here, it is not wise to press the informant. Taboo naming situations are

noted, however, to assure office personnel that names for particular entities have not been

overlooked.

Overall, the number of people to be interviewed depends on the judgement of the

fieldworker. The interviewer needs to feel confident that the information collected is

adequate and reliable and reflects name usage of the general population, rather than of an

individual or group of people with personal or political agendas. This sense of completeness

cannot be easily conveyed and must be achieved through experience.

Where two or more linguistic groups live in the area, names used by each group should

be recorded. As far as possible, fieldworkers should be familiar with the languages involved or

have appropriate assistance available.

In general, informants are picked with certain qualifications in mind. It is important for them:

(a) To be local residents of the area covered;

(b) To have a good visual grasp of the local landscape and its features (or able to read a

map confidently) and able to communicate well in identifying the geographical

entities being discussed;

(d) To not be easily led by the fieldworker’s questions;

(e) To be able to maintain their intellectual integrity. For example, they should not

arbitrarily alter local names or “improve” them from considerations of delicacy.

Asking the questions

The purpose of toponymic field investigation is to obtain information on the local use of

geographical names and their applications from competent persons who can be interviewed

personally.

The success of an interview depends on several factors, some of which are not easily

controlled. The interview process constitutes a dialogue between persons who are generally

unfamiliar with each other and where personality can play a role. Personal interviewing requires

tact. The selection of informants is planned, however, to help reduce personality problems or

difficulties arising from the informants’ lack of knowledge about the local usage of geographical

names.

At the beginning, the fieldworker should make clear the purpose of the visit and

explain that it has nothing to do with sales or taxes. The fieldworker should not become involved

with controversial political or social issues or have any motive other than the desire to learn how

each informant interviewed refers to the geographical entities within the area with which he or

she is most familiar.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

In conducting interviews, each fieldworker develops his or her own procedure. Some

may move forward at each meeting as quickly as possible and thereby save time by overlooking

social courtesies and small talk. Another may briefly establish more intimate relations with the

informant and family before proceeding with the interview.

A method that is sometimes used, especially if the fieldworker is dealing with someone

of another culture and language, entails first meeting the informant and explaining the purpose of

the planned visit. The interview is then arranged for a different date and time. This procedure

reduces the element of surprise and possible anxiety that could result from meeting a stranger

and trying to understand the purpose of his or her visit, both at the same time. When the

fieldworker returns, the informant is generally ready and often much more cooperative than he or

she would be during a one-visit event.

Figure XIII. Field collection of geographical names in progress: collaboration

over provision of locally used names of nearby features (South Africa)

Regardless of the technique used, the goal of the fieldworker is always the same. In

every case, a quick evaluation must be made of the informant’s toponymic knowledge, veracity

and ability to read a map or to explain clearly the locations and identities of the places, features

and areas that are not within view.

Care must be taken to ensure that a map lying on the table does not influence the person

being interviewed. Some might feel that local names are trivial and unimportant, compared with

those already appearing on an official map. The informant should be made aware at the

beginning that it is not necessarily names on maps (rather than local names) that are the correct

ones. In some cases, it may be possible to travel with an informant in the study area and have the

geographical names and entities pointed out directly.

Field collection of names

It is important that fieldworkers ask questions without bias and not lead the

informant during the interview. Also, assumptions should not be made based on knowledge

received during previous interviews. For example, in an English context, one would never ask,

Is Balto the correct name of this cape shown on the map?

Another example of an error an interviewer might make would be to ask, What is the

name of the creek that flows through the pond at the south end of the village? If the response is

“Ajax”, and the fieldworker then writes down “Ajax Creek”, the name might be partly wrong.

The local name could really be “Ajax Branch”. The question should be posed in such a way as to

ensure that the generic element of the name used locally will be clearly indicated in the response.

Some field investigators, to test the informant’s knowledge of local names, occasionally

ask questions using incorrect names. This is not recommended; however, the investigator who

does engage in such a practice must handle the informant with skill to prevent unnecessary

embarrassment or confusion.

Information is obtained from each informant by direct questioning. However, if the goal

is to learn how names are used within the context of everyday language, the questions should not

always be phrased so as to elicit only straightforward answers of the yes or no variety. In order

to arrive at an understanding of actual usage, the investigator will find it helpful to

encourage the informant to use geographical names in the context of a sentence.

Name application

Determination of the written forms of names is only part of the standardization process.

Equally important is an understanding of the association between the names and the geographical

entities they identify. In other words, one must answer the question, To what precisely does the

name refer? Desired information includes:

(a) Identification and location of the place, feature or area to which each name applies;

(b) A description of the extent of each named feature;

named entities (such as a peak and the mountain on which it stands).

Each named entity is identified and located by annotation directly on the fieldwork maps

(overlays, aerial photographs), along with the informant’s identification according to an

established scheme, such as the one discussed below (see figure XIV). The procedure is simple

and provides one of the best means of identifying a geographical entity. Care should be taken by

the fieldworker to avoid crowding and putting misleading marks on the maps. Field conditions

are not always conducive to careful pen-and-pencil annotation. However, every effort must be

made to add neat and accurate writing and line work to the field maps or map overlays. The

effort will save time and prevent errors in the office where the information is collated and

evaluated. It is generally impossible to go back to the field in order to clarify indistinct work.

Increasingly, information can be digitally recorded in the field for office analysis.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Any named geographical entities not symbolized on the fieldwork maps or identifiable

on the aerial photographs can be accurately located and carefully annotated on the maps,

overlays or photographs in their true location, relative to other features, using standard map

symbols where possible. The fieldworker must therefore be experienced in map reading and in

the use of coordinates and, preferably, also of aerial photos.

Figure XIV. Recording of geographical names on a base map outline

Note: Individual numbers correspond with informants

(as identified in the field

notebook). In this example, “?” beside the number of an informant indicates

uncertainty about the toponym; “x” indicates that the informant had no knowledge

of this name’s being in use.

Vaguely defined named entities

The majority of names apply to relatively discrete geographical entities that can be

logically defined and described. In our world, no two entities are exactly alike and the limits or

extents of some are often vague.

The problem is: Exactly what is named? The question posed might take the form: To

what does the name apply? The fieldworker might observe a lack of information or

conflicting information on feature extents. Local people may agree on names for deserts,

ridges, mountains or bays without being concerned with their precise limits or boundaries. The

mouth of a named river may be fairly clearly defined but in local usage there may seldom be

agreement on its headwaters, unless it heads at the junction of two named branches. People who

fish might define a named point of land extending into a body of water as the extreme tip of land,

whereas local farmers might apply the same name to the entire peninsula.

Field collection of names

For map making, name application is important. A fieldworker must determine and

clearly identify local applications of names and, just as significant, report when local usage is not

clearly defined. That information is important to names office staff and to a names authority

when deciding on the applications of approved names. The authority can use such

information when logically (although perhaps arbitrarily) defining specific extents of

features. Such decisions are important, as they provide guidance for name placement on

maps, and in other applications where named entities require precise limits. In these cases,

logically defined limits are normally not in contradiction with rules concerning local usage and,

if carefully assessed, are accepted by local citizens.

The precise definitions for the extents of features have always been important. Today,

they are of increasing significance to toponymists because the system software of names

databases now has the capability to store and display geometry, that is to say, digital boundaries

of the extents of features.

Hierarchic relationships of generic terms

In many local languages, as generic terms used in toponyms can create difficulties for the

unwary, they need special consideration. They need careful handling by the fieldworker who

must record how people actually use the generic terms with regard to named entities and their

relationships with other features.

Hierarchic relationships between generic terms are revealed in the way people use names

in everyday language. The situation varies from language to language depending how parts of

the landscape are perceived for name reference purposes. In English, for example, generic terms

often reflect relative relationships, but not necessarily size. For example, a cove might be as

large as a bay located elsewhere, but when it is part of the named bay it is relatively speaking a

smaller feature. In the same way, a named peak can be as large or larger than any mountain

elsewhere, but it can also be part of a mountain. However, a mountain cannot be part of a peak.

Knowledge of such hierarchic relationships in a country’s languages is useful to fieldworkers

who may need to explain the use of generic terminology in a report to a names authority.

Recording and reporting field information

The goal of field investigation is to provide adequate information about local

geographical name usage, and so foster good and lasting decisions for national standardization

purposes. It is a critical link between the real world of local name usage and the

standardization process. Toponymic information obtained from each informant needs to be

clearly understood, evaluated for accuracy and recorded by the fieldworker in field books and on

maps (conventional or digital) for submission to a names authority. It is good procedure to

record, with the toponymic results, some pertinent information about each informant who

provided the data (see figure XV). This should include the person’s approximate age and

occupation and the years during which he or she has lived in the area. Such information can be

useful when evaluating information in the office. When government officials or those in similar

positions are being interviewed, it may be useful to include more complete contact information

for any future follow-up.

Field collection of names

One method for keeping track of information and informants in field investigation uses a

coding system for convenience. Each person interviewed in a project area is given a unique

identification number that can relate the informant’s recorded data in the field book with those

annotated on the field map. Also, simple alphabetical and/or numerical codes, or other symbols,

can be used as a form of shorthand to note standard replies to routine questions and the judged

reliability of the interview responses. Through use of established codes of this kind, the amount

of note-taking can be reduced and the crowding of annotations on the field maps can be avoided.

The office staff or the national names authority might wish to develop a standard coding system

for field use.

During an interview, there are various ways of recording the toponymic information. For

example, it can be annotated directly onto the field map or a transparent map overlay (for areas

of a map where information is already crowded). Information can also be recorded in a notebook

or into a digital report or database using a laptop or hand-held computer. The informant’s code

must be included in each case. Differently colored pens or pencils might be used on the map or

in a notebook to differentiate types of data.

A good procedure is to use name worksheets, keyed to a sequence of annotated numbers

for features or existing names on a map. Worksheets allow more space for recording information

during an interview. They present a practical problem however: separate sheets are sometimes

hard to handle and one or more might get lost among other papers and maps. In some areas,

laptop computers are used to record field information.

The value of a field investigation project is judged by the results, which reflect not only

how successful the interview and recording techniques were, but also how well names

information has been conveyed to the names authority office. Every effort should be made to

transfer to the office information that is:

(a) Factual;

(b) Clearly stated and unambiguous;

(d) Appropriate;

(e) Adequate.

Hastily written and often cryptic notes taken during an interview need to be transcribed

in order that office staff may understand clearly their meaning and significance. It is best that

field recorded notes be reviewed and transcribed

(possibly into a computer) by the

fieldworker at the end of each day. The longer the fieldworker waits to do this, the greater the

risk he or she will forget or confuse significant details of several interviews.

Multilingual conditions

In most countries throughout the world, more than one spoken language generates

geographical names. Field investigation procedures are affected by multilingual conditions,

of which there are a great variety. At one end of the spectrum are those countries that are

essentially unilingual, where a large majority of the people speak and understand one language,

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

even though some people might also speak other languages. At the other end of the spectrum are

those countries that are composed of numerous cultural groups in which many languages are spoken.

Since standardization programmes are normally based on the principle of local usage,

most countries must take into account the treatment of names derived from the different

languages. How this is done is a matter for consideration by the national names authority. The

field investigator is responsible for the collection of all names in the field, and must not be

selective in the process. Selection, if there is any, is the responsibility of the names authority and

its support staff who should undertake selection according to established principles, policies and

procedures.

Terms such as “official language”, “national language”, “minority language”, etc. must

be understood in the context of any particular country (see Glossary, “language, …”). The legal

status of languages in the country as a whole, or in parts of it, must be clear to staff, particularly

as it affects geographical names.

The effect of multilingual conditions on interview procedures depends on the ability of

the fieldworker to communicate with the people being interviewed and to create a written record

of names in a manner acceptable to the names authority and the staff support office. If the

fieldworker does not speak the language in which the informant is providing geographical

names, other assistance is necessary. For example, it may be possible to use an interpreter—

someone who understands the purpose of the interview and is able to deal easily with linguistic

and geographical matters. A local schoolteacher, an administrative official or another such

knowledgeable person who is able to converse freely in two or more languages might furnish

this service.

Recording names in various languages

When working with a variety of languages, the procedures for recording names will

likely vary depending on whether the names are derived from languages that have a

written form or from languages that do not have a written form. In the first case, the names

are recorded using the standard writing and spelling of the language from which the name is

derived. The written forms of those names gathered in the field may need to be converted into an

acceptable orthography according to established rules of the language.

Recording names: unwritten languages

If a language does not have a standard writing system, the names collected must be

written with consistent representation of sounds, if possible according to a system already

developed by linguists. Two resolutions adopted by the First United Nations Conference on the

Standardization of Geographical Names (I/20, 1967; and I/16, 1967) addressed this particular

case (see annex).

Unless a fieldworker is a linguist and can record names using the International Phonetic

Alphabet (IPA), he or she is not qualified to hand-record names from unfamiliar languages.

Linguists aware of the standardization processes can do the job in cooperation with the field

investigator who, for his or her part, makes sure that the names are correctly identified with the

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names (2006) - page 2