Manual for the national standardization of geographical names (2006)

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ST/ESA/STAT/SER.M/88

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

Sales No. E.06.XVII.7

ISBN: 92-1-161490-2

Printed in United Nations, New York

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Foreword

“What is the standardized way of writing geographical names?” This question was raised in

connection with cartographic services provided through the United Nations Economic and Social

Council after their inception in the late 1940s. The topic was discussed in the 1950s, and

pursuant to Council resolutions, a six-member group of experts gathered in 1960. Under the

chairmanship of Dr. Meredith F. Burrill (United States of America), the meeting considered the

standardization of geographical names at the national level and standard methods of converting

these accepted forms into other languages (and scripts) at the international level. This meeting

was the starting point for the subsequent United Nations Conferences on the Standardization of

Geographical Names (eight conferences had been held as of 2002) and the sessions of the United

Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN) (22 sessions had been held as of

2004). The Conferences and the Group of Experts study national and international problems

connected with standardization of geographical names and exchange technical information in

this field.¹ )

To disseminate an understanding of its work and to encourage countries to undertake

their own programmes, the United Nations has published for the Group of Experts the reports of,

and the technical papers presented at, the United Nations Conferences on the Standardization of

Geographical Names and the sessions of the Group of Experts, a variety of articles in the

volumes of World Cartography, a brochure on the tasks and accomplishments of the Group of

Experts, and a Glossary of Terms for the Standardization of Geographical Names.² The

significant need for a manual that would address the establishment of national geographical

names authorities was first filled through the publication of World Cartography, volume XXI,³

in 1990.

Under the auspices of the Working Group on Publicity and Funding of the United

Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names convened by David Munro (United Kingdom

of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), a new manual has been prepared. The material from

World Cartography, volume XXI, has now been completely revised and updated by its original

author, Donald Orth (United States of America), with editorial assistance from experts from

several countries, in particular Helen Kerfoot (Canada), Roger Payne (United States of America),

Naftali Kadmon (Israel) and Peeter Päll (Estonia). This material makes up part one of the current

publication. In addition, we are pleased to add some more detailed contributions pertaining to

aspects of the administration of geographical names standardization, written primarily by

Botolv Helleland (Norway), Naftali Kadmon, Helen Kerfoot and Ferjan Ormeling (Netherlands).

Botolv Helleland, Helen Kerfoot and Ferjan Ormeling reviewed those texts.

¹) More information about the work of the United Nations Conferences on the Standardization of Geographical

Names and the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names can be found in part two, chap. I, of the

present publication.

² United Nations publication, Sales No. M.01.XVII.7.

³ United Nations publication, Sales No. E.90.I.12.

iii

Foreword

The Group of Experts currently has working groups established to address issues of

training, database and gazetteer development and data exchange, romanization systems, country

names, toponymic terminology, exonyms, pronunciation, and promotion of indigenous and

minority group geographical names. In addition, working groups are discussing publicity and

funding, and matters of evaluation and implementation of United Nations resolutions. All are

important projects for the Group of Experts.

However, the cornerstone of all the work of the Group of Experts is the goal of

establishing a geographical names authority in each country and promoting the use of the

nationally standardized names internationally on maps and in documents. The present Manual

for the National Standardization of Geographical Names provides a framework for those

embarking on this important journey.

Helen Kerfoot

Chair, United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names

2004

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Contents

Page

Foreword

iii

Contents

Introduction

• The present manual

• Advantages of standardization

• Training courses

• Contacts

Part one. Organization of a national programme for

geographical names standardization

Donald J. Orth (United States of America)

Acknowledgements

Chapter

I. Definitions and standardization

• Defining a geographical name

• Geographical names standardization

• National standardization

• International standardization

II. Names and language

• Spoken language

• Written language

• Writing systems and scripts

- Names conversion: transcription and transliteration

III. Programme requirements

• Justification for names standardization

• Recognition of a need

• Legal or official authority

• A clearly stated mandate

• Continuing status

• Authority limitations

Contents

Chapter

Page

IV.

Types of national geographical names authorities

• Authority structure

…

1. Central names office

2. National names committee

- Committee membership

- Committee chairperson

- Committee size

- Frequency of meetings

3. Decentralized names authority

Beginning a programme

• Setting up a names authority

• Leadership

• Staff support

- Staff responsibilities

- Staff size

- Staff qualifications

• Advisory committees and support organizations

• Special toponymic experts

VI.

Standardization procedures

• Establishing guiding principles, policies and procedures

• Decision factors

• United Nations recommendations

• Basic considerations

• Recommended standardization procedures

• Cartotoponymy and standardization

• Names of features on or across boundaries

VII.

Office treatment of geographical names

• Staff research

• Name records and letter files

• Card files

• Computer files

• Using the Internet

• Geographical names and base map files

• Other files

• Office research tools

VIII.

Researching name problems

• Inconsistently used names

• Name change requests

• Proposals of names for unnamed features

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Chapter

Page

• Research procedures

• A name and its entity

• Report forms

• Toponymic research

• Working with a names committee

IX.

Field collection of names

• Pre-field preparation

• Field investigation: procedures

• Field investigation: training

• Initial contacts

• Selection and number of informants

• Asking the questions

• Name application

• Vaguely defined named entities

• Hierarchic relationships of generic terms

• Recording and reporting field information

• Multilingual conditions

• Recording names in various languages

- Recording names: unwritten languages

• Local names committees: field assistance

• Field information review

Dissemination of official toponyms

• Publishing official names

• Gazetteers

• Updating official name information

• Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors

Afterword

Part two. Some selected readings on geographical names

standardization

Acknowledgements

I. Role of the United Nations in the standardization of geographical names:

some fifty years on

Helen Kerfoot (Canada)

II. Language and the conversion of geographical names

Naftali Kadmon (Israel)

vii

Contents

Page

III. Some examples of legislation concerning geographical names authorities

Helen Kerfoot (Canada)

107

IV. Office processing—storing the data and maintaining the records: some

basic thoughts on data fields

Helen Kerfoot (Canada)

117

V. The social and cultural values of geographical names

Botolv Helleland (Norway)

121

VI. Exonyms, also called conventional names

Naftali Kadmon (Israel)

129

VII. From fieldwork to authorized names: the “owner decides” principle

followed in the Netherlands

Ferjan Ormeling (Netherlands)

133

VIII. Example from the Netherlands of written instructions to surveyors for

collecting toponyms in the field

Ferjan Ormeling (Netherlands) and Nico Bakker (Netherlands)

137

IX. Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors, for international use

(from the 1970s to the present)

Helen Kerfoot (Canada) and Eeva Maria Närhi (Finland)

143

X. Some selected websites relevant to geographical names standardization

Compiled by Helen Kerfoot (Canada)

153

Annex. Texts of selected resolutions adopted by United Nations Conferences

on the Standardization of Geographical Names

159

Index

165

viii

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Figures

Page

First training course held by the United Nations Group of Experts on

Geographical Names, hosted by Bakosurtanal (National Coordinating

Agency for Surveys and Mapping) in Cisarua, Indonesia, 1982

II.

Some examples of different scripts: Russian Cyrillic, Arabic and Chinese

III.

Basic types of national geographical names authorities

IV.

Decision-making on geographical names: a geographical names

committee in session

Multiple names for a place or feature shown on a map by parenthesizing

one of the names

VI.

Multilingual road sign for a community in the County of Finnmark,

northern Norway: Lakselv (Norwegian); Leavdnja (Saami);

Lemmijoki (Kvenish/Finnish)

VII.

Working in a geographical names office

VIII.

Example of a toponymic database (for Mozambique) developed to enter

information from existing card records

IX.

Example from New Zealand of a name submission form for use by the public

in proposing names for unnamed features or changes to existing names

Steps involved in the field collection of geographical names, in many cases

including the use of computers to facilitate the recording or processing of

the names data

XI.

Planning for local fieldwork

XII.

Discussion with village leaders prior to collection of local toponyms in

Brunei Darussalam

XIII.

Field collection of geographical names in progress: collaboration over

provision of locally used names of nearby features (South Africa)

XIV.

Recording of geographical names on a base map outline

Contents

Page

XV.

Example of a form used in Norway for the field collection of

geographical names

XVI.

Discussion and verification of the results of fieldwork

XVII.

Example of gazetteer content and part of a page layout, as illustrated in the

bilingual publication entitled Concise Gazetteer of Canada/Répertoire

toponymique concis du Canada

XVIII.

Number of delegates, countries, specialized agencies and intergovernmental

and other organizations participating at United Nations Conferences on the

Standardization of Geographical Names

XIX.

Participation of countries at the United Nations Conferences on the Standard-

ization of Geographical Names, by number of conferences attended

XX.

Working groups of the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical

Names and the overall structure of United Nations Conferences on the

Standardization of Geographical Names, the Group of Experts and the

Divisions of the Group of Experts

XXI.

Conceptual representation of geographical names knowledge

124

XXII.

Red Square in Moscow

130

XXIII.

Bilingual map presentation with Frisian minority names first and Dutch

majority names in parentheses

136

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Introduction

Rationale for the present manual and notes on presentation of the

material; some advantages of geographical names standardization;

information about training courses of the United Nations Group of

Experts on Geographical Names; who to contact for further

information

The present manual

At the Eighth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, held in

Berlin from 27 August to 5 September 2002, the Conference, in its resolution VIII/15⁴ requested

the United Nations Statistics Division to include in its publication programme for the biennium

2004-2005 a basic manual on the standardization of geographical names.⁵ In resolution I/4

adopted at the First United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names

held in 1967, the Conference provided the basic framework for such a project.⁶ The complete

text of both resolutions can be found in the annex to the present publication.

In accordance with the direction of the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical

Names, the present publication is designed primarily to assist countries that do not have an

appropriate authority and a specific set of standards for the consistent rendering of their

geographical names. Members of the Group of Experts are mindful that conditions for

geographical names standardization vary from country to country. They depend on the resources

and organization of each national Government, the number of languages involved, and the

cultural and/or political relationships within and among regions of a country.

The information in this manual consists of suggestions that hopefully will be useful to

those interested in ways to standardize their nation’s geographical names. Although the manual

directs attention to procedures for beginning a programme, countries already involved in

standardization should also find some useful suggestions in the manual.

The manual has been divided into two parts: part one provides the basic information for

establishing a national geographical names programme and part two offers readers some further

details regarding selected aspects of the basic tenets of geographical names standardization. A

very brief indication of the content of each chapter in part one of the manual is provided

immediately under the chapter title. To assist users of the manual, references to further readings

in part two are contained in numbered footnotes (footnote number is immediately followed by

⁴ See Eighth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, Berlin, 27 August-5

September 2002 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.03.I.14), chap. III.

⁵ A precursor of part one of the present manual can be found in Donald J. Orth, “Organization and functions of a

national geographical names standardization programme: a manual”, World Cartography, vol. XXI (United Nations

publication, Sales No. E.90.I.12), pp. 11-40.

⁶ See United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, vol. I, Report of the Conference,

Geneva, 4-22 September 1967 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.68.I.9).

Introduction

the index sign ())) at appropriate places in part one. The material in part two may present the

subject in more depth, provide more details or examples or contribute a different perspective on a

particular topic.

The number of a resolution adopted by one of the United Nations Conferences on the

Standardization of Geographical Names cited in the text may be given in parentheses followed

by the year of adoption. For example, (V/2; 1987) refers to resolution 2 adopted by the Fifth

Conference held in 1987. The full texts of some resolutions are included in the annex. For the

full texts of all the resolutions adopted through the Eighth Conference, please see the published

Conference reports.

Eight conferences have been held to date:

First

1967

Geneva

Fifth

1987

Montreal

Second

1972

London

Sixth

1992

New York

Third

1977

Athens

Seventh

1998

New York

Fourth

1982

Geneva

Eighth

2002

Berlin

In part one, material printed in boldface refers to United Nations resolutions or constitutes key

information.

Advantages of standardization

Modern society depends on the use of standard geographical names for accurate and

efficient administration and communication. A national standardization programme produces

savings in time and money by increasing operational efficiency in all levels of government,

industry, commerce and education. This is particularly true in map and chart production; census

operations; national defence; domestic and international land, air and sea communication; water

and mineral surveys; postal and shipping deliveries; land and water safety; disaster control; and

demographic, cultural, social and scientific research. National standardization processes should

eliminate duplication of work, where more than one office or organization identifies correct and

consistent name usage.

Just as important, a nation’s people inherently consider geographical names an essential

part of their cultural heritage. A national names authority also gives each country the means to

establish its own officially accepted names, instead of their having to be determined by non-

governmental or international map, atlas and gazetteer makers.

Geographical names standardization varies from one country to another. In fact, no two

countries with effective programmes approach standardization in the same way and their

organization, principles, policies and procedures vary widely. No one method is better than

another, provided each achieves the goal of establishing consistently written names that are

nationally accepted and agree (allowing for some exceptions) with local spoken and written usage.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Training courses

Periodically, the United Nations provides training courses on the national standardization

of geographical names. These courses have been given in various parts of the world. The

first/pilot course was given in Cisarua, Indonesia in 1982 (see figure I). In the following 20

years, some 30 courses were offered through the Group of Experts as well as through the Pan

American Institute of Geography and History (PAIGH).

The courses, presented under different auspices and in different languages, have included

lectures, workshops, field exercises, and computer and Internet training for persons in beginning

and intermediate standardization programmes. A working group within the Group of Experts is

currently in the process of developing a web-based training course programme. It has been

started online within the framework of the cartography-oriented web course being produced by

the Commission on Education and Training of the International Cartographic Association (ICA).

Further information on training courses and available materials may be found on the website of

the Group of Experts Working Group on Training Courses in Toponymy

(http://toponymycourses.geog.uu.nl).

Contacts

Support for the programme of the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical

Names is provided through the United Nations Statistics Division at United Nations

Headquarters in New York.

Current information on personnel and contact details (as well as much more information

on the standardization of geographical names) can be found on the UNGEGN website

(http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/).

As of the date of publication, contact details are as follows:

UNGEGN secretariat

United Nations Statistics Division, Office of the Director

Two UN Plaza, DC2-1640

New York, NY 10017

United States of America

Telephone: 212 963 3042

Fax: 212 963 9851

E-mail: laaribi@un.org

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Acknowledgements

Recognition is given here to several people who have assisted in the writing of part one

of the present manual. In particular, a word of special thanks goes to Helen Kerfoot (Canada) for

her leadership and dedication as principal editor of the present work. Thanks also are extended

to Naftali Kadmon (Israel) and Peeter Päll (Estonia), in particular for their assistance in the

clarification of language terminology; to Roger Payne

(United States of America) for his

contributions, especially involving naming procedures and the use of computer technology in the

standardization of geographical names; and to Botolv Helleland (Norway) for his input on

cultural issues.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Chapter I

Definitions and standardization

Defining some terms, including geographical names and

standardization; national and international standardization goals of

the Group of Experts

Defining a geographical name

The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names defines a geographical name as a

name applied to a feature on Earth (Glossary, 216).⁷ In general, a geographical name is the

proper name (a specific word, combination of words, or expression) used consistently in

language to refer to a particular place, feature or area having a recognizable identity on the

surface of the Earth. Named features include:

1. Populated places (for example, cities, towns, villages)

2. Civil divisions (for example, States, cantons, districts, boroughs)

3. Natural features (for example, streams, mountains, capes, lakes, seas)

4. Constructed features (for example, dams, airports, highways)

5. Unbounded places or areas that have specific local (often religious) meaning (for

example, grazing lands, fishing areas, sacred areas)

A geographical name may also be referred to as a topographical name or toponym (a

term that in a wider context can also include extraterrestrial names, such as names applied to

features on the Moon or on other planets).

Geographical names standardization

The word standardization, as applied to geographical names/toponyms, is defined by the

Group of Experts (Glossary, 311) as:

(a) The establishment, by an appropriate authority, of a specific set of standards

or norms, for example, for the uniform rendering of toponyms;

(b) Rendering an item such as a toponym in accordance with such norms.

A standardized name⁸ is defined (Glossary, 228) as:

A name sanctioned by a names authority as the preferred name from among a

number of allonyms [variant names] for a given feature. However, a single feature

⁷ The Glossary of Terms for the Standardization of Geographical Names (United Nations publication, Sales No.

M.01.XVII.7) is a multilingual glossary containing terms and their definitions in the six official languages of the

United Nations. In the present manual, all further references to technical terms in the Glossary take the form

“(Glossary,

[number of term])”. The text of the manual is also available on the UNGEGN website

(http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/).

⁸ In the text of this manual, geographical names may be referred to as “standardized”, “official”, “authorized”,

“approved” or “standard”. This is purely for ease of reading and no distinction in meaning is intended, unless

specifically stated.

Definitions and standardization

may have more than one standardized name. Example: Kaapstad and Cape Town

(but not Capetown).

National standardization

The goal of the United Nations is to establish usable and consistent written forms of

toponyms and their applications throughout the world. This depends heavily on the official

use of names within each country. The Group of Experts defines national geographical names

standardization as the standardization of geographical names within the area of a national

entity, such as a State (Glossary, 314). Resolution I/4 adopted by the First United Nations

Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names held in 1967 constituted one of the

first efforts to establish uniform instructions for a national standardization programme.⁹ The

Fifth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names (1987), in its

resolution V/15, urged those countries that did not yet have national geographical names

authorities to proceed without delay to establish them.¹⁰

Such a programme is directed towards the determination and selection of the best

or most appropriate names in their written form. The expression “geographical name

standardization” applies to the dual aspect of both the written name and its reference to a place,

feature or area on the surface of the Earth. It does not apply specifically to names used in speech,

although spoken usage influences the written word and the written word can influence names

used orally.

The Group of Experts also strongly recommends that standardized geographical names

data be considered in the design of national and regional spatial data infrastructures and be

included in their development and implementation.¹¹

International standardization

Worldwide geographical names standards are important in meeting the needs of

commerce and international relations. For example, the United Nations requires accurate

geographical names for clear communication and administration of its activities and for the

development of international toponymic data exchange standards. Such international

standardization ideally is based on national standards of each individual country. The Group of

Experts defines international geographical names standardization (Glossary, 313) as an

activity aimed at reaching maximum practical uniformity in the rendering … of all

geographical names on Earth … by means of:

⁹ See United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, vol. I, Report of the Conference,

Geneva, 4-22 September 1967 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.68.I.9).

¹⁰ See Fifth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, vol. I, Report of the

Conference, Montreal, 18-31 August 1987 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.88.I.7).

¹¹ In its resolution VIII/6

(see annex to the present manual and Eighth United Nations Conference on the

Standardization of Geographical Names, Berlin, 27 August-5 September 2002 (United Nations publication, Sales

No. E.03.I.14), chap. III), the Eighth United Nations Conference (2002) expressed support for previous resolutions,

adopted at the Fifteenth United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Pacific held in Kuala

Lumpur in 2000, and the Seventh United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for the Americas held in New

York in 2001. All stressed the importance of geographical names as a critical means of access to, and fundamental

data set of, a nation’s spatial data infrastructure.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

1. national standardization, and/or

2. international convention, including the correspondence between different

languages and writing systems.

The second item refers to an international need to convert names from one language or script to

another. Script is defined (Glossary, 283) as a set of graphic symbols employed in writing or

printing a particular language. For example, Roman, Cyrillic, Arabic and Chinese are different

scripts used to write a particular language or languages (see figure II).

The method of conversion from one script to another is generally decided by the country

concerned and then submitted for approval as the international system. The United Nations

conferences over the last 30 years have agreed upon the romanization of some 30 non-Roman

scripts. International toponymic usage still depends on the availability of official toponyms

established within each country. The United Nations organization encourages each country to

provide official national names, in a form suitable for use on maps, using its own standard

writing script. It also urges all countries with non-Roman scripts to provide a single system of

romanization (that is to say, conversion of its script into Roman script (Glossary, 280)). Non-

Roman scripts can then be converted via their romanization into other scripts for national and

international use.

________________________________________________________________________

Russian Cyrillic alphabet

А Б В Г Д Е Ж З И Й К Л М Н О П Р С Т У Ф Х Ц Ч Ш Щ Ъ Ы Ь Э Ю Я

А б в г д е ж з и й к л м н о п р с т у ф х ц ч ш щ ъ ы ь э ю я

Arabic alphabet

ي و ﻩ ن م ل ك ق ف غ ع ظ ط ض ص ش س ز ر ذ د خ ح ج ث ت ب ا

A character may have different forms, depending on its position in a word.

Chinese characters

⏓⏴␝⑔⑭⒴┪▒○◝⛬❾⠶ㄞㄨ㆖㈓㊔㋳㍯㓉㔿㗟㠘㢂㦂㦭㩗㭟

A random selection of the many thousand characters.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure II.

Some examples of different scripts: Russian Cyrillic, Arabic and Chinese

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Chapter II

Names and language¹² )

Geographical names in languages of the world: their spoken and

written forms; basic introduction to writing systems and scripts, and

the conversion of names between languages/scripts

Spoken language

Geographical names are found in every known language. Their use in daily speech provides a

practical system of geographical reference, and satisfies a need to classify and name the vast

variety of landscape features in the world around us. Humans, at an early date, learned to sort

out and group similar kinds of features from infinite varieties of landscape. Each of these

perceived groups (or classes) was identified by a common word (such as river, hill, lake or

camp). For particular reference to an individual feature, a more unique word was associated with

the group name to form what we call a geographical name. The word (or words) for particular

reference in each name is (are) referred to as the specific element (for example, Taupo in Lake

Taupo; Mackenzie in Mackenzie River). The part of the name referring to the group (or class) is

called the generic term or element (for example, Hill in Little Green Hill; Camp in Camp Russ).

In some languages, the specific and generic are combined in one word

(for example,

Altafjorden). Names developed along with the evolution of language groups to form the vast

numbers and variety of geographical names/toponyms found today in hundreds of languages

throughout the world.

Most spoken languages allow some variation in the forms of names and their applications

to the landscape. This variation is complex in nature but normally does not cause major problems

in everyday speech. This is because sentences, not words, are the essence of understanding in

spoken language. Names taken out of sentence context, however, require a degree of

consistency. Cartography, for example, where

“accurate and unambiguous” presentation is

required, is intolerant of name variation. In fact, in terms of public criticism, names are the most

vulnerable aspects of a map. People familiar with the area shown on a map identify the errors in

names more quickly and more easily than they do other problems connected with the use of

symbols on the map.

Written language

Geographical names normally originate in and are influenced by spoken language. This

fact is important because the goal of standardization is to use names in a different kind of

communication system, that is to say, in visual/graphic symbols (writing) rather than in sound

symbols (speech). Standardization programmes are concerned with written forms of names

including their script, spelling, word forms, writing marks and capitalization.

) The subject of the present chapter is addressed in more detail in chaps. II and VI of part two.

Names and language

Writing systems and scripts

Although the written forms of many languages (for example, English, French, German

and Polish) use what is known as the Roman (or Latin) script, many (for example, Arabic,

Russian and Chinese) are recorded using other scripts. Some writing systems have evolved over

centuries, others over a short period of time. Throughout the world, the number of speech sounds

and the number of ways of uttering and modifying them are very large. No single language

contains all the sounds, no person can pronounce them all, and no traditional system of writing¹³

can represent them all.

Systems for writing languages generally fall in three general groups:

(a) Alphabetic systems (Glossary, 013), in which the unit sounds of vowels and

consonants ideally are represented by distinct symbols called letters (examples:

Roman; Cyrillic; Arabic; Greek; Korean, etc.);

(b) Syllabic systems (Glossary, 323), where written symbols represent combinations of

speech sounds called syllables

(examples: Inuktitut syllabics; Japanese Kana

syllabics; Amharic, etc.);

182), where whole words or basic units of

meaning are represented by distinct writing symbols (examples: ancient Egyptian

hieroglyphics; Chinese characters; and Japanese Kanji characters).

Names conversion: transcription and transliteration

Names conversion (Glossary, 041) is the process of transferring names in one language

or script (source or donor language/script) to another (target or receiver language/script). It

endeavours to represent the written forms of sounds of the script of one language (that is to say,

its graphic characters) by those of the other. Names conversion is achieved chiefly through

two distinct methods: transcription and transliteration.

The conversion of sounds of one language into the closest corresponding written sound

symbols of another (normally without any modifications to the writing of the receiver language)

is called transcription (Glossary, 346).

However, it is usually impossible to adapt accurately the sound symbols of one language

to another without adding special marks (diacritics) and/or letter symbols to the receiver writing

system. Conversion using such additional diacritics and/or letters is called transliteration

(Glossary, 352). Transliteration aims to enable the reverse process (that is to say, a full

reconstruction of the original name in the source script).

Special marks and letter symbols, however, are generally meaningless to people who are

unfamiliar with their intended sounds. For this reason, transcription is often adopted for more

everyday situations, using only the letters and letter combinations of a target alphabet, without

attempting always to render exactly the original pronunciation.

¹³ The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) has been developed with the aim (not fully achieved in practice) of

representing all sounds of human speech in written form.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Chapter III

Programme requirements

Recognizing the need for a name standardization programme;

creating the legal or official authority; establishing the mandate for a

continuing authority

Justification for names standardization

It is often difficult to convince senior management in government to devote time and money to

an issue that has generally taken care of itself for so long. What is not realized is that large

amounts of time and money are being spent on efforts in a number of agencies to determine and

use “correct” names for maps, legal documents and other publications.

The cost of such endeavours is generally hidden, because the work is thought of as

constituting parts of other programmes. For example, mapping and charting organizations spend

a great deal of time and production cost on the collection, selection and application of up-to-date

cartographic nomenclature. This and similar work in other offices and organizations are often

being done without coordination. This leads to duplication of effort and resources, as well as to

variation and conflicts in name usage.

A strong argument in favour of a national programme focuses on consolidation of

effort with less overall cost, more consistent results and greater benefit to a larger number

of government and non-government organizations, and the general public.

There are four basic steps needed to begin setting up a national authority:

(a) Recognition of a need;

(b) Legal or official authority;

(d) Continuing status.

Recognition of a need

The need for a national programme seems obvious to those of us interested in the

standardization of geographical names. However, someone in authority in the national

Government must be aware that such a programme would achieve an overall savings of

government resources and must be interested and concerned enough to act on this. If that

person has a high enough position or wide enough management responsibility, and available

financial and personnel resources, the programme may be organized by decree or order. The

head of a mapping or internal affairs office, for example, can be effective in establishing a

committee to investigate organizational procedures.

It is also possible to have interested persons from several government offices meet and

discuss advantages, organization, support and membership, and the matter of which department

Programme requirements

or office would be responsible for setting up and obtaining approval for a national names

authority. Someone or a group of persons must initiate whatever action is needed to get

things started.

Legal or official authority¹⁴ )

A legal or official authority or institution is desirable for an effective national

programme. This is particularly important because universal recognition and validity, within

and outside government, are based on the credentials of the organization. Legal authority

already may be implied in the official mission of a particular government office. However,

unless it is specifically stated, that authority may not be recognized by other government offices

or by people throughout the country. It is best if the necessary legal authority for responsibility

for geographical names is obtained directly from the lawmaking arm of the national Government.

Such an organized national body, or coordinated group of bodies, is thought to provide

the best opportunity for a nationally acceptable, balanced and efficient national geographical

names programme. Sometimes, obtaining legal authority may take considerable time, so that it

may be preferable in the interim to initiate the organization and practical work of a

standardization programme. Basic preliminary regulations can be written to provide consistency

of approach in the meantime.

A clearly stated mandate

Full and legal recognition is a critical factor in the effectiveness of a national programme.

The efforts of an authority need to rely on the support and respect given not only by national and

local Governments, but also by citizens throughout the country. This support depends on real

powers or a real mandate given to the names authority by the Government.

A mandate should clearly define powers, mission, areas of responsibility and initial

procedures for a successful programme. The decision to include or exclude certain categories

of toponyms within the scope of the national authority needs to be clearly indicated.

A mandate should allow a names authority to:

(a) Approve or change names, individually or in groups, together with their

applications, according to prescribed policies and procedures adopted by the names

authority;

(b) Promulgate these official names and their applications for official and public use;

spelling and application of geographical names.

Continuing status

There is a continuing need for an authority to deal with the dynamics of geographical

nomenclature. Continuous status for a national names authority is not only important but

also critical because the naming process is an ongoing one.

¹⁴ ) Some examples of legislation concerning geographical names authorities can be found in part two, chap. III.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

While most geographical names are relatively stable, some are dynamic to the extent that

there is both variability in their use and constant pressure to change them. Names are subject to

many of the same influences that affect other aspects of language and culture. This is

particularly true in multilingual areas and in areas of modern and commercial development,

where cultural changes are occurring at a rapid pace. Named features might change in extent or

nature depending on natural, cultural or administrative conditions.

Keeping up with changes and linguistic conflicts is very important. A significant

interruption in the work of a names authority could call into question the integrity and currency

of names data, could jeopardize a nation’s standardization efforts and could adversely affect

mapping programmes and the nation’s spatial data infrastructure.

Authority limitations

The law/mandate may consider certain categories of toponyms to be outside the purview

of a names authority. The names of major civil/political divisions

(States, provinces) are

organically derived by law and are thus official. This holds true in many countries for minor

civil divisions (towns, counties, boroughs).

In cases of entities such as administrative areas, streets, roads, buildings and dams, the

names are frequently determined by the responsible government or maintenance organization

and are generally recognized as official.¹⁵ ) These may, or may not, be included as part of the

work of a national names authority.

Sometimes, the mandate of a geographical names authority is limited to the

standardization of the names of natural features and minor populated places. There are

advantages, however, in the authority’s being responsible for disseminating all types of official

geographical names.

¹⁵ ) For an example of the involvement of different authorities see part two, chap. VII.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Chapter IV

Types of national geographical names authorities

Some examples of different types of names authorities: a central

names office, a national names committee; a decentralized names

authority; some comments on committee size, membership, etc.

A national Government may standardize geographical names in any one of several ways. In

its resolution I/4 A, the First United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical

Names (1967) recommended that national standardization be accomplished by means of a

national geographical names authority. Such a body, or coordinated group of bodies, is thought

to provide the best opportunity for a balanced, efficient and successful programme. An early

review of standardization programmes in a number of countries was included in World

Cartography, volume XVIII,¹⁶ pp. 6-8. Although there is no recent synopsis, country reports to

the United Nations Conferences on the Standardization of Geographical Names provide this type

of information.

Authority structure

The organization of geographical names authorities varies from country to country. Most

can be classified under one of three kinds of government structures:

1. Central names office

2. National names committee (board, council, commission, etc.)

3. Decentralized names authority

The details can differ considerably depending on how each was internally organized with regard

to principles, policies and procedures (see figure III). There are advantages and disadvantages

connected with each approach, depending on the internal organization of a nation’s government.

A names authority should be organized in such a way as to offer the best chance for

success in carrying out a national standardization programme at reasonable cost in time

and money. As countries differ in structure, size, number of languages in use and names

complexity, national names authorities throughout the world also differ. The selection of an

organizational structure is an important step in the process of creating a national geographical

names authority. It is important to ensure the independence from political pressures of the names

authority’s work.

Central names office

In some countries, the authority is solely vested in an existing government office. It is

possible, and sometimes prudent, for a national Government to officially assign this

responsibility to a single agency, such as one involved with mapping, or to a separate autonomous

¹⁶ United Nations publication, Sales No. E.85.I.23.

Types of national geographical names authorities

authority within a government department. Whatever approach is taken, standardizing

geographical names and standardization in general are inherently a task of government.

A central office authority is the simplest form of organization. If located within a

national mapping organization, for example, a names office can be effective because map usage

plays a major role in names standardization.

A university or college providing assistance to the names office, and under the authority

of the national Government, is helpful in multilingual countries. It can also provide the expertise

of professional geographers, historians and linguists in names research and publication.

The central office professional staff is normally responsible for determining decisions,

policies and procedures for delegated categories of names. However, even in this simple

structure, it is preferable for more than one person to be involved with the actual decision-

making, and for final decisions to be signed off by a higher authority (for example, the head

of a department).

There are disadvantages when an authority is located in an agency or single office.

Persons in other government offices and other users of official names might be concerned that

the assigned office will introduce unacceptable preferences and agency prejudices into the

selection of official names. There is also a risk that scholars at an associated university might

become more involved with theoretical issues than with the practical goal of standardizing large

numbers of names.

In one variation of a single names office, two or more departments are given the

responsibility for standardizing particular categories of names. Named geographical entities

can be grouped into several categories. The more obvious categories are:

(a) Natural landscape features;

(b) Populated places and localities;

(d) Administrative areas (parks, reservations, forests);

(e) Transportation routes (streets, roads, trails);

(f) Other constructed features (buildings, dams, monuments).

National names committee

In some countries, the national Government has established a geographical names

committee with provision for adequate staff support. In this structure, authority and decisions

rest with a committee, consisting of persons representing various key government offices and,

perhaps, non-governmental experts. Such a committee normally meets periodically, thus

requiring the support of a small staff that keeps the committee informed of name issues and

problems requiring formal action. It also performs background research, undertakes

administrative duties and is responsible for publications relating to committee actions.

The committee system introduces more complexity into a names authority. An advantage

of the committee/staff system is that it allows persons with different specialties and backgrounds

from other government departments to be represented and involved in the standardization

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

process, and to work towards consensus among departments. It reduces or eliminates suspicion

of bias and provides an opportunity for major users of toponyms to integrate their needs into

the process.

• Central names office:

Office

• National names committee:

National

Office

committee

• Decentralized national names committee:

Regional committees

Regional office

National

committee

Office

(coordinating role)

Decision-making on names

Research on names for possible authorization; publicizing results

Research on names for possible authorization; decision-making on names; publicizing results

Figure III.

Basic types of national geographical names authorities

Types of national geographical names authorities

Broad-based committee representation creates an environment that allows policies

and decisions to be respected by various levels of government and the public. Representation

from key agencies and organizations goes a long way towards eliminating concerns about the

validity of the work being done by a names authority.

As committees might meet infrequently, every effort should be made to avoid delay in

the decision-making process, as this could adversely affect mapping and other publishing

programmes. On the other hand, decisions must be based on adequate information and sufficient

analysis to eliminate the need for subsequent reconsideration.

Committee membership

Membership of a names committee could, for example, consist of:

(a) Representatives of national government offices and departments;

(b) Representatives of regional governments;

(d) Non-governmental experts (such as advisors from universities, scientific academies

or publishers).

Whatever the make-up of a names committee, membership should include representation

from national agencies and offices that require nationally standardized names. The national

mapping agency definitely should be involved because it publishes official maps with official

names for all to use.

Other government representation may include archives, libraries, cultural affairs, parks

and natural resources, agriculture, commerce, communications, urban and rural planning,

transportation, defense, and postal and publishing services. A number of these activities may fall

under a single department and, for example, one committee person may represent several

agencies.

Government offices with representation on a names committee whose work is ongoing

are more likely to comply with its policies and decisions.

Committee members need not be restricted to those with a scholarly knowledge of

toponymy. Their job is to consider practical considerations important in names standardization.

Pertinent information is normally provided to them by the staff and by expert members or special

advisory experts.

Persons holding key or senior management positions in government could be included, as

they are effective in making decisions and formulating standardization policies. They also are in

a position to ensure conformity with the actions of a names authority within their own

organizations.

Committee chairperson

Consideration should be given to the position of chairperson of the committee—to how

the position is filled and the term of office.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

The chairperson could be a member already appointed to the committee, or an individual

separately appointed by the sponsoring department or through the consensus of the members. If

one of the existing members is to take on this role, a clear policy should be put in place as to

whether in this situation an election is required, or whether various departments will rotate in

providing the chairperson of the committee. A chairperson from outside government could be

appointed to avoid possible biases of government departments.

Similarly, clear guidelines should be established as to the term of office of a committee

chairperson and as to whether or not more than one term can be served consecutively.

Committee size

The size of a names committee needs to be given careful consideration. It should be

large enough to allow representation from key organizations, but small enough to function

efficiently. The optimal number of voting members for most working committees appears to be

somewhere between 6 and 18 persons, not counting non-voting staff involvement. Costs for

running the committee might be a consideration in determining the committee size.

Frequency of meetings

A names committee may meet on a regular or an irregular basis, depending on its

decision-making workload and its secretariat support. In the beginning, it may be necessary for

the committee to meet often to develop policies and procedures; but once a programme is

established with a good working staff, the need to meet frequently will be less urgent.

In some countries, the national geographical names committee meets monthly and in

others, from one to four times a year, as necessary, to deal with policy matters and to make

decisions on names. Its staff, and in some cases special working subcommittees, are given

responsibility for carrying out the standardization programme and the daily administrative,

processing and publication work.

Decentralized names authority

Another structure used to accomplish standardization delegates naming authority to major

civil/administrative divisions within the country. These major civil divisions may organize

names authorities following the same patterns suggested here for national authorities, that is to

say, through a central names office or names committee within their own jurisdiction. In some

countries, it might be necessary to establish names authorities based on language/cultural areas.

However, decisions made through decentralized names authorities need national

processing for universal acceptance. A small staff in the national Government can maintain a

catalogue or database of approved names and make them available for national and international use.

With a decentralized structure, the national Government will likely require a mechanism

to deal with the naming of features outside an individual jurisdiction, such as those in national

government areas (for example, parks and forests), and in cases where the named features cross

boundaries between jurisdictions.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Chapter V

Beginning a programme

Thoughts on setting up a names authority and the leadership and staff

support required; involving local expertise and advisory committees

could be beneficial

Setting up a names authority

The structure of a names authority should be based on fair consideration of those

governmental agencies directly concerned with names standardization. Once a decision to

establish a programme is made, and with consideration of the requirements outlined in chapter

III, it is time to plan the organization and the means to achieve objectives. A national

standardization activity need not be complicated or expensive, provided there is agreement

concerning the organizational and instrumental components of the task.

It is important that decisions on names be objective and based on formalized rules.

Names standardization rules

(referred to as principles, policies and procedures) are best

established, with the help of a knowledgeable staff, when a committee is first organized. These

rules can be modified over time, as needed and as experience is gained. As a starting point, it

might be helpful to review those rules and guidelines established by other countries.

It is important to keep in mind that the prime objective is standardization and not

necessarily the in-depth study of geographical names, a field best left to university scholars.

Of course, there are occasions when background research is necessary to resolve particular name

problems or to refine rules. In these cases, the names authority can rely on staff and/or other

expert information and advice before rendering decisions on the issues.

In this respect, it should be kept in mind that many names of major features might

already enjoy a degree of written uniformity and that it is normally prudent to give official

recognition to such names as present no problem. The operation of effective decision-making on

names for official standardization purposes depends more on general rules and less on individual

names research.

Standardization progammes require a clear statement of purpose. Agreement on

fundamental issues by interested parties is essential at the planning stage. The following

questions should be considered and answered at the outset:

1. What kind of names authority is best suited for the internal structure of the national

Government and the political organization of the country?

2. What status and resources will be available for staff support to the authority and

where in government will the staff reside?

3. What kinds of names of features will be under the purview of the national authority?

4. What characteristics or attributes associated with toponyms will be standardized?

5. How will the costs of operation and promulgation of official names be covered?

Beginning a programme

A names standardization programme should begin carefully and not be over-organized. A

small core of persons who are aware of the practical needs of the programme can work out a plan

of organization, procedures and even preliminary principles and policies for national

standardization. It is possible to

“fine-tune” these rules to meet special conditions when

experience is gained during the planning stage, and as work proceeds.

The cost of a names authority and a standardization programme need not be great. It

should decrease overall costs in government by centralizing an activity performed in several

offices. Actual cost will depend on several factors such as size and organization of an authority,

number and complexity of the country’s names, and necessary procedures used to achieve

standardization. It is important to balance the time and money spent for national standardization

with potential savings derived from the programme.

Leadership

A key person in any organization is the one responsible for directing its mission and

leading a successful programme. Administrative leadership of a director (or executive

secretary) is required either for a central names office or for a national names committee.

A central names office organized within the government of a country needs only the

simplest form of administrative organization to do its work. The director is the main leader of

the staff and programme and often is responsible for the success or failure of this effort. The

person chosen for the job should have both administrative and technical abilities. The position

requires efficient and sensitive management skills, and the person should be sensitive to

language and cultural issues, as well as to the interests and special names-related problems of

government agencies, private organizations and local citizens groups. Under normal

circumstances, he or she would be expected to:

(a) Recommend and direct plans of work;

(b) Supervise the staff;

(d) Ensure and supervise the publication/distribution of the results of the committee’s

work;

(e) Act as spokesperson for the programme;

(f)

Orchestrate the support for the national names committee.

A national names committee (centralized or decentralized in nature) generally has an

elected or appointed chairperson (or president). That person runs the committee in compliance

with established policies and may also serve as spokesperson in the public arena. The role of

chairperson, however, is frequently undertaken by someone who has a full-time job performing

another activity. It is generally necessary for the chairperson to rely on the director (or executive

secretary) for administrative and operational leadership.

In the case of a national names committee, the responsibilities of the director are similar

to those described above for a central names office, but are performed in consultation with, or

under the immediate direction of, the committee chairperson.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names

Staff support

Staff support is key to a successful standardization programme. Every governmental

or institutional body needs both administrative and technical staff to carry out its mission.

Although some technical and professional help may be available from knowledgeable public and

university volunteers, it seems practical for a national Government to provide some, if not all,

technical and administrative support.

The effectiveness of any programme in government depends on the flow of information.

It is no less true for a names office. A geographical names authority, in the form of a central

names office, a national names committee, or a decentralized authority, cannot function unless

the everyday business of the programme is accomplished. Geographical names require

investigation and processing, letters need to be written, records need to be kept and official

publications dealing with decisions and policies need to be prepared. A small professional staff

headed by a director or executive secretary can do this work. It is possible to have a staff office

located within an existing organization interested in supporting the programme, which could be

the national mapping agency or office of natural resources. Such an established organization

could easily provide office space, and technical and administrative assistance for a small names

staff.

Staff support for a central names office and for a national names committee are much the

same. In the former, policy and decisions are made by the staff, and in the latter, by a committee

representing several interested government agencies and/or local citizens groups. In the latter

case, the staff is responsible for providing the committee with all necessary information to allow

good decision-making. A decentralized authority allows most decisions to be made locally by

appropriate major civil divisions, with a small national government staff coordinating activities

and dealing with issues that lie outside the authority of those divisions.

Staff responsibilities

Any type of national names authority depends on accurate information to function

effectively. Obtaining information is the job of a professional staff. Such information is

gathered from a variety of sources, then analysed and processed for appropriate treatment. The

information is obtained from:

(a) Document research and investigation;

(b) Scholars appointed to advise the names authority;

(d) Field investigations;

(e) Local citizens;

(f) State, regional and local names offices.

The staff also provides administrative service, handles correspondence and answers enquiries,

prepares documentation on names, maintains paper and computer records, keeps files of

decisions made, and prepares reports and publications, all under the supervision of a director.

Manual for the national standardization of geographical names (2006) - page 1