Part D. At 100.0°C, another phase change occurs as the water changes from water at
100.0°C to steam at 100.0°C. Similar to the ice–water mixture in part B, the
water–steam mixture remains at 100.0°C—even though energy is being added—until
all of the liquid has been converted to steam. The energy required to convert 1.00 g of
water to steam at 100.0°C is
Q ! m
w
L
v
!
(1.00 % 10
&
3
kg)(2.26 % 10
6
J/kg)! 2.26 % 10
3
J
Part E. On this portion of the curve, as in parts A and C, no phase change occurs;
thus, all energy added is used to increase the temperature of the steam. The energy
that must be added to raise the temperature of the steam from 100.0°C to 120.0°C is
Q ! m
s
c
s
#
T ! (1.00 % 10
&
3
kg)(2.01 % 10
3
J/kg $ °C)(20.0°C)! 40.2 J
The total amount of energy that must be added to change 1 g of ice at & 30.0°C to
steam at 120.0°C is the sum of the results from all five parts of the curve, which is
3.11 % 10
3
J. Conversely, to cool 1 g of steam at 120.0°C to ice at & 30.0°C, we must
remove 3.11 % 10
3
J of energy.
Note in Figure 20.2 the relatively large amount of energy that is transferred into
the water to vaporize it to steam. Imagine reversing this process—there is a large
amount of energy transferred out of steam to condense it into water. This is why a burn
to your skin from steam at 100°C is much more damaging than exposure of your skin
to water at 100°C. A very large amount of energy enters your skin from the steam and
the steam remains at 100°C for a long time while it condenses. Conversely, when your
skin makes contact with water at 100°C, the water immediately begins to drop in tem-
perature as energy transfers from the water to your skin.
We can describe phase changes in terms of a rearrangement of molecules when
energy is added to or removed from a substance. (For elemental substances in which
the atoms do not combine to form molecules, the following discussion should be inter-
preted in terms of atoms. We use the general term molecules to refer to both chemical
compounds and elemental substances.) Consider first the liquid-to-gas phase change.
The molecules in a liquid are close together, and the forces between them are stronger
than those between the more widely separated molecules of a gas. Therefore, work
must be done on the liquid against these attractive molecular forces if the molecules
are to separate. The latent heat of vaporization is the amount of energy per unit mass
that must be added to the liquid to accomplish this separation.
Similarly, for a solid, we imagine that the addition of energy causes the amplitude
of vibration of the molecules about their equilibrium positions to become greater as
the temperature increases. At the melting point of the solid, the amplitude is great
enough to break the bonds between molecules and to allow molecules to move to new
positions. The molecules in the liquid also are bound to each other, but less strongly
than those in the solid phase. The latent heat of fusion is equal to the energy required
per unit mass to transform the bonds among all molecules from the solid-type bond to
the liquid-type bond.
As you can see from Table 20.2, the latent heat of vaporization for a given substance
is usually somewhat higher than the latent heat of fusion. This is not surprising if we con-
sider that the average distance between molecules in the gas phase is much greater than
that in either the liquid or the solid phase. In the solid-to-liquid phase change, we trans-
form solid-type bonds between molecules into liquid-type bonds between molecules,
which are only slightly less strong. In the liquid-to-gas phase change, however, we break
liquid-type bonds and create a situation in which the molecules of the gas essentially are
not bonded to each other. Therefore, it is not surprising that more energy is required to
vaporize a given mass of substance than is required to melt it.
S E C T I O N 2 0 . 3 • Latent Heat
613
Quick Quiz 20.3
Suppose the same process of adding energy to the ice cube
is performed as discussed above, but we graph the internal energy of the system as a
function of energy input. What would this graph look like?