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Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Ministry of Energy and Mines Office of the Chief Inspector of Mines (2017) - page 2

Using The Cylinder Factor Method

Note: Safety factor minus (-) 500 psi

CYLINDER

FACTOR

SIZE

D

0.16

E

0.28

M

1.56

H-K

3.14

Calculation:

Cylinder pressure times (x) factor

Divided by flow (Lpm) = minutes

Example:

D size Cylinder with pressure of 2000 psi x Factor 0.16 = 320

Divided by flow 6 litres per minute = 53.33 minutes

The charts below show the durations for various pressures and flow rates for E, M, and K cylinders.

Oxygen Cylinder Duration

“E” Cylinder 682 L of Oxygen

PSI

6 Lpm

8 Lpm

10 Lpm

2000

1 hr, 53 minutes

1 hr, 23 minutes

1 hr, 8 minutes

1500

1 hr, 25 minutes

1 hr, 3 minutes

51 minutes

1000

56 minutes

42 minutes

34 minutes

500

28 minutes

21 minutes

17 minutes

Oxygen Cylinder Duration

“M” Cylinder 3,540 L of Oxygen

PSI

6 Lpm

8 Lpm

10 Lpm

2000

8 hr, 40 minutes

5 hr, 51 minutes

4 hr, 40 minutes

1500

6 hr, 30 minutes

4 hr, 14 minutes

3 hr, 23 minutes

1000

4 hr, 20 minutes

2 hr, 36 minutes

2 hr, 15 minutes

500

2 hr, 10 minutes

59 minutes

47 minutes

Oxygen Cylinder Duration

“K” Cylinder 6,900 L of Oxygen

PSI

6 Lpm

8 Lpm

10 Lpm

2000

17 hr, 30 minutes

13 hr, 0 minutes

10 hr, 30 minutes

1500

13 hr, 0 minutes

9 hr, 50 minutes

7 hr, 50 minutes

1000

8 hr, 45 minutes

6 hr, 30 minutes

5 hr, 15 minutes

500

4 hr, 20 minutes

3 hr, 15 minutes

2 hr, 35 minutes

9-9

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual

Chapter 10 Fire

10-1

OBJECTIVES

Fire poses major hazards in the rescue and treatment of casualties. Burning structures and equipment

must be addressed efficiently to rescue trapped and injured people, as well as to mitigate damage to

infrastructure. Upon completion of this chapter, the trainee shall be able to demonstrate competency

in:

 Components of personal protective equipment used in fire rescue

 Fundamental characteristics of fire behaviour

 Fire classes, phases, and hazards

 Fire extinguisher classifications, types, and agents

 Special conditions such as ventilation, equipment fires, and BLEVEs

The information contained within this chapter in no way prepares or certifies the rescuer to

perform interior structural firefighting. Always operate within your scope.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Bunker gear (turnout gear) is the protective clothing that

is required to perform fire rescue. This gear needs to be

researched prior to the purchase to ensure that it meets

the current applicable standards and site requirements.

Fire-rated rescue clothing consists of:

 Helmet: Protects the head from injury.

 Protective Hood (balaclava): Protects parts of the

face that are not covered by the collar or helmet.

 Bunker pants and coat: Will protect the body

from heat, cuts, and abrasions.

 Gloves: Protect the hands from heat, cuts, and

abrasions.

 Bunker boots: Protect the feet from cuts and

abrasions from the top and from the bottom.

 Eye protection: Protects the wearer’s eyes from

foreign matter.

 Hearing Protection: Protects the ears from

excessive noises.

 Respiratory Protection: Protects against heated

gases as well as toxic and oxygen-deficient

atmospheres.

 Personal Alert Safety System (PASS): Built into a

breathing apparatus or attached to a rescuer.

Care, Cleaning, and Storage of PPE

 Manufacturer’s guidelines must be followed to ensure proper use, storage, and handling.

All equipment used must meet relevant health and safety legislation, standards, and regulations.

During an incident, rescuers may be exposed to biological, chemical, electrical, and fire hazards. Care

should be taken to reduce exposure from contaminated PPE during and after an incident.

10-2

FIRE BEHAVIOUR

Fundamental to a mine rescuer’s safety is a basic grasp of the physics and chemistry of a fire.

States of Matter

There are three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas/

vapour.

Two factors that can change the state of matter are heat and

pressure.

When substances are heated, they tend to change from the

solid to the liquid state and then to the gas or vapour state.

When substances are subjected to pressure, they tend to

change from gas or vapour to liquid and then to solid. Materials as a rule will not burn while in their

solid or liquid states. Materials must first change to gas or vapour and then burn.

Factors Affecting Fire Behaviour

Solid fuels have definite size and shape. The surface area of a solid fuel in relation to its mass is a

primary consideration for the mine rescuer. The larger the surface area for a given mass, the more rapid

the heating of the fuel and the process of pyrolysis will be. The physical position of a solid fuel is also

important. If a solid fuel is in

a vertical position, the fire

will spread more rapidly than

if it is in a horizontal position.

Pyrolysis refers to the

decomposition of organic

material at high

temperatures in the absence

of oxygen. During pyrolysis,

the material is heated to a

point that both its physical

state (e.g., solid) and

chemical composition change

at the same time. It usually

produces gases, vapours, and

particulates.

10-3

Extinguishment

Based on the fire tetrahedron, there are

four methods of fire suppression:

 Remove the reducing agent

 Exclude the oxidizing agent

 Reduce the temperature

 Interrupt the chemical chain

reaction

Interrupting the Chemical Chain Reaction

Vapourizing liquid and dry chemical agents

extinguish fire more rapidly than the same

quantity of other smothering agents. When

these extinguishing agents are added to a

fire, they release atoms that combine with

the molecules involved in the chemical

chain reaction. The new molecules formed

by this process do not combine with the

oxygen in the air that keeps the fire

burning, thereby interrupting the chain

reaction.

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Ignition Temperatures

Auto-ignition Temperature is the temperature at which a material will

ignite spontaneously, independent of an external ignition source.

Flash Point is the lowest temperature at which fuel will give off enough

vapours to ignite when exposed to an external ignition source.

Fire Point is the temperature at which a liquid fuel will produce

vapours sufficient to support combustion once ignited. The fire point is

usually a few degrees above the flash point.

Ignition Temperature refers to the minimum temperature to which the

material must be heated to initiate self-sustained combustion

independent of an outside heating source.

10-6

Transmission of Heat

Heat can travel throughout a burning building by one or more of three methods: conduction,

convection, and radiation. Heat tends to move from a hot substance to a cold substance.

Conduction involves transfer of heat from one

body to another by direct contact or by an

intervening heat-conduction medium. Speed of

transfer is dependent on the conductivity of the

material.

Good heat conductors include copper, aluminum,

and iron. Poor heat conductors include masonry,

wood, fibrous materials, and air, liquids, and

gases.

Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement

of air or liquid. When liquids and gases are heated

they begin to move within themselves. As heated

air expands and rises, cooler air takes its place at

the lower levels. Convection heat currents are

generally the cause of heat movement from floor to

floor, from room to room, and from area to area.

The spread of fire by convection influences the

positions for fire attack and ventilation more than

any other method of heat transmission.

Radiation is the transmission of energy as an

electromagnetic wave without an intervening

medium. Heat waves (infrared rays) are similar to

light waves in nature but they differ in length and

energy. As an object is exposed to radiant heat

waves, it will absorb or reflect the heat depending

on its properties.

Radiated heat is one of the major sources of fire

spread and its importance demands an immediate

defensive attack at points where radiation exposure

is severe.

Products of Combustion

When a fuel burns there are three products of combustion:

1. Thermal Energy is released as heat and flame.

2. Smoke (Particulate) is solid matter made up of unburned, partially, and completely burned

substances.

3. Toxic Smoke (fire gases) is made up of the various gases produced during the combustion

process. A few examples are carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, and chlorine.

10-8

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES

Fires are classified into five categories of fire based on important properties, such as the materials

combusting and the means of extinguishment. Identifying the correct class of fire is integral to any fire-

fighting response.

Class “A” - Fires involve ordinary combustible materials, such as paper, wood,

and cloth. These fires require a cooling, blanketing, or wetting extinguishing

agent such as water or multi-purpose dry chemical.

Class “B” - Fires involve flammable liquids such as gasoline, kerosene and

greases. Extinguishing agents for this type of fire include carbon dioxide, dry

chemical and foam that can interrupt the chemical chain reaction, exclude

oxygen, and inhibit the release of combustible vapours.

Class “C” - Fires involve energized electrical equipment. A typical

extinguishing agent is carbon dioxide. High value areas are protected with

“clean agents” that leave no residue on electrical equipment. If the

electricity can be de-energized (turned off), the underlying fuel is often class

A or B.

Class “D” - Fires involve combustible metals such as magnesium, potassium,

lithium, titanium, and aluminum. Special dry powder extinguishing agents are

required for this class of fire, and must be designed for the specific hazardous

metal. If not available, dry sand can be used. Do not use water.

Class “K” - Fires involve commercial kitchen appliances with vegetable oils,

animal oils, or fats at high temperatures. A wet potassium acetate, low pH-

based extinguishing agent is used for this class of fire.

10-9

PHASES OF FIRE

When fire is confined to a building or room, a situation develops that requires carefully calculated and

executed ventilation procedure to prevent further damage and reduce danger. This type of fire can be

best understood by an investigation of its four progressive phases:

 Incipient

 Growth

 Fully Developed

 Decay

Incipient (Ignition) Phase

The incipient phase starts when the elements of

the fire tetrahedron come together and

combustion begins. The oxygen content in the

air has not been significantly reduced and the

fire is producing some gases. The temperature in

the room during this phase will only be slightly

increased.

Growth Phase

During the growth phase, oxygen-rich air is

drawn into the flame as convection (the rise of

heated gases) carries the heat to the uppermost

regions of the confinement area. The heated

gases spread out laterally from the top

downward, forcing the cooler air to seek lower

levels and eventually igniting all the combustible

material in the upper levels of the room. This

process is known as thermal layering. Additional

fuel is ignited and the fire grows in size.

Flashover can occur spontaneously and rapidly

with a release of dangerous amounts of heat

and into the next phase of the fire.

Fully Developed Phase

During the fully developed phase, oxygen is

consumed rapidly and the heat produced is at

its maximum. All combustible materials in the

compartment are burning and producing large

volumes of fire gases. The fire will continue to

burn as long as fuel and oxygen remain.

10-10

Decay Phase

In the decay phase, flame may cease to exist

and the fuel and/or oxygen are nearly

exhausted. Burning is reduced to glowing

embers. The fire will continue to smoulder

and the room will completely fill with dense

smoke and gases of combustion. Eventually

the fire will go out.

HAZARDS OF FIRE DEVELOPMENT

Rollover occurs when unburned combustible gases that

were released during the ignition or growth phase of a fire

accumulate at the ceiling. When they mix with oxygen and

reach their flammable range, they ignite and a fire front

(licks of flame igniting in upper layers of smoke) develops,

expanding very rapidly and rolling across the ceiling.

Flashover is the transition from the growth phase

to the fully developed phase of a fire. It occurs

when the surfaces and contents involved in the

fire have been heated and gases given off by

pyrolysis have ignited. Flame breaks out almost at

once over the surface of the contents involved in

the space.

Signs of flashover are:

 Dense black smoke

 Fire gases begin to fill the fire area

 Rollover is visible

10-11

Backdraft usually occurs during the decay phase when a fire is smouldering. If there is insufficient

oxygen, the unburned gases may collect in pockets throughout the structure or fill the entire building.

Such a condition needs only the admission of sufficient fresh air (oxygen) to cause a very rapid burning

of these gases, the expansion of which may be sufficient to cause an explosion.

The degree of intensity of the back draft depends upon the degree of confinement, the amount of

heated gases, and the rate and volume of fresh air (oxygen) admitted. This type of condition can be

made less dangerous by proper ventilation.

Signs of impending backdraft:

 Little or no visible flame

 Smoke emanating under pressure from cracks, i.e., around windows or doors

 Smoke may be drawn back in

 Smoke is exiting in puffs or intervals

 Black smoke becoming dense grey yellow

 Smoke-stained or blackened windows

10-12

Thermal Layering is caused by convection and is the

tendency for gases to form into layers according to their

temperatures. It is also known as heat stratification or

heat balance. The hottest gases tend to accumulate at

upper levels, a phenomenon known as mushrooming.

Cooler gases accumulate at lower levels. Thermal layering

is disrupted when water is applied directly into the layer

without proper ventilation. This results in steam, smoke,

higher temperatures and decreased visibility at the lower

level which are detrimental to a rescuer.

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Fire Extinguisher Classification

Fire extinguisher classification is based on physical fire

extinguishing potential. Extinguishers are designated as

Class “A”, Class “B”, Class “C”, Class “D”, and Class “K”,

with some types having a dual or triple classification.

The classification consists of a number and a letter. It

appears on the label affixed to the appliance by the

Underwriters’ Laboratories of Canada (ULC) or another

recognized agency.

The numeral indicates the approximate relative fire

extinguishing potential of the extinguisher. In addition,

it is an approximation of the number of square feet

(1ft² = 0.09 m²) of appreciable depth flammable liquid

that may be extinguished. Appreciable depth is defined

as a depth of liquid greater than ¼ inch (6 mm).

The letter refers to the class of fire.

The number indicates “units” of fire extinguishing potential and does not refer to the size, capacity or

quantity of extinguishing agent used. These ratings are based on an untrained operator. An expert can

be expected to extinguish up to 2.5 times as much fire as a novice with the same quantity of agent.

1A = agent contained is equivalent to 1.25 U.S. gallons (4.7 L) of water

B = rated to extinguish the square footage of Class B fire

C = non-conductive agent

Examples:

 4A 60B C = agent contained is equivalent to 5 U.S. gallons (18.8 L) of water, rated to extinguish

60 ft² (5.6 m²) of Class B fire. Agent is non-conductive.



10A 80B C = agent contained is equivalent to 12.5 U.S. gallons (47 L) of water, rated to

extinguish 80 ft² (7.4 m²) of a Class B fire. Agent is non-conductive.

10-13

Types of Fire Extinguishers

Note: Operating instructions must be clearly understood. Extinguishers must be fully charged, in their

designated place, and ready for use.

Hand-Operated Pump

Normally used for water-type agents only. It has a built-in hand-operated double-action pump that

discharges water on a continuous up/down or in/out stroke. These extinguishers are normally rated

Class “A” only.

Stored pressure

The expellant and the extinguishing agent are stored within a single cylindrical container. The

extinguisher will include:

 Pressure gauge

 Carrying handle

 Discharge lever with pin/tamper seal

 May or may not have a hose

This type of extinguisher can contain most agents including:

 Water

 AFFF

 Dry powder

 Dry chemical (including multipurpose)

These extinguishers may be rated for a combination of Class

“A”, “B” and/or “C” fires as well as Class “D”. Check the label.

Gas Cartridge

The expellant is contained in a separate cartridge. This

cartridge is normally attached to the outside of the cylinder

but it can also be found inside with the agent. This type of

extinguisher primarily contains:

 Dry powder

 Dry chemical (including multipurpose)

These extinguishers can be rated for Class “A”, “B”, “C”, “D”

fires, or a combination thereof.

10-14

Self-Expellant

In this type the expellant is the extinguishing agent.

The agent has enough vapour pressure to expel

themselves when the extinguisher is activated. These

extinguishers can be rated for Class “A”, “B”, “C”, “D”

fires, or a combination thereof.

Large Wheeled and Stationary Units

These units are located by fire protection specialists

to cover specific risks in most cases, such as fuel and

lube stations. These extinguishers can be rated for

Class “A”, “B”, “C”, “D” fires, or a combination

thereof.

10-15

Extinguishing Agents

Mine rescuers must be familiar with the different extinguishing agents available and the corresponding

classes of fire.

Extinguishing

Classes

Advantages

Limitations

Agent

Water

A



Non-toxic, plentiful, efficient



Generally safe for only



Converts from liquid to steam,

Class A fires

absorbing heat in the process



Electrically conductive



Can be pressurized



Good range and penetration



Absorbs more heat per volume

than any other agent

Carbon Dioxide

B, C



Does not leave a residue



Limited range



Non-freezing



Affected by the wind



Can be hazardous if used

in a confined or

unventilated space



Cold shock to electrical

equipment

Dry Chemical

B, C



Non-freezing



Leaves a residue

(standard ordinary



Can be used with water stream or



Can be corrosive

base)

fog



Limited range



Can be used in the wind



Limited cooling effect

Multi-Purpose Dry

A, B, C



Non-freezing



Leaves a residue

Chemical



Limited range



Limited cooling effect

Foam

A, B



Class A foam has excellent wetting



Leaves a residue

(Two classes: Class

and penetrating properties due to



Will freeze

A and B)

low surface tension



Requires selection of



Class B foam can make water float

correct foam for the fire

on fuels that are lighter than water

application



Class A/B create a vapour seal on

fuels

Dry Powder

D



Specific agents used for Class D



Incorrect application can

fires

spread the fire



Not widely available



Specific to only one type

of metal

Wet Agents

K



Saponification turns oils and fats



Only rated for Class K

into soap/foam

fires



Creates thick blanket to smother

the fire



Effective, easy to clean up

10-16

EQUIPMENT FIRES

Mine rescuers should not attempt to fight equipment

fires unless they can do so competently and have the

necessary equipment. Mine rescuers must be aware of

the numerous hazards present in equipment fires. These

include but are not limited to:

 Fuel and lubricant volumes

 Batteries and electrical

 Stored energies, e.g., hydraulic components,

airbags, and tires

 Unidentified cargo

BLEVE (BOILING LIQUID EXPANDING VAPOUR EXPLOSION)

The information contained within this section in no way prepares the rescuer to

actively respond to potential BLEVEs. Always operate within your scope.

A confined gas or liquid is

potentially dangerous, regardless

of whether the content is

flammable. BLEVEs can be caused

by a fire near or impinging the

storage vessel, heating the

contents and increasing the

pressure inside.

Storage vessels are designed to

withstand the stored pressure,

but impinging flame can cause the

metal to weaken and eventually

fail. If the storage vessel is being

heated in an area where there is

no liquid, it may rupture faster

without the liquid to absorb the

heat.

Pressurized vessels are equipped with relief valves that vent off excess pressure, but the vessel can still

fail if the pressure is not released quickly enough. Relief valves are sized to release pressure fast enough

to prevent the pressure from increasing beyond the strength of the vessel, but not so fast as to be the

cause of an explosion. An appropriately sized relief valve will allow the liquid inside to boil slowly,

maintaining a constant pressure in the vessel until all the liquid has boiled and the vessel empties. If the

substance being stored is flammable, once the vessel fails the liquid immediately turns into a rapidly

expanding cloud of vapour that ignites into a huge fireball. Mine rescuers must keep in mind that a

BLEVE can send solid projectiles flying for great distances.

10-18

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual

Chapter 11 Rope Rescue

11-2

PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT

Equipment

Photo

Gloves: All rescuers handling a moving rope must wear

protective gloves. These will provide protection from

rope burns and to some degree from pinch points.

They should be snug for dexterity and increased

gripping ability. Only use gloves made of leather or

with thick synthetic palms to resist abrasion.

Pliers: Used to free a jammed carabiner.

Knife or Suitable Cutting Tool: Used to cut open

jammed systems. Must be kept sharp.

Rescue Harnesses: Must be commercially

manufactured, NFPA certified Class III. The harness

style needs to have the capability of providing two

separate frontal tie-in points, one at the chest level for

belay attachment and one at the waist level for front

load-bearing attachment. A third dorsal D attachment

point for fall arrest is also required.

Lanyard: Used as an attachment between the rescue

harness and secure anchor point. Must meet minimum

relevant health and safety legislation of jurisdiction.

All safety precautions must be in place before freeing a jammed system by cutting.

11-4

ROPE AND WEBBING

Rope Design and Construction

Rope is used for rescue or recovery work and climbing. Being able to use rope properly is important in

both underground and surface mine rescue. Bringing an injured patient out of a stope is no different

from raising an accident casualty up over a bench in an open pit mine or over a natural obstacle on the

surface.

Synthetic Rope

Synthetic ropes have replaced natural ropes for mine rescue work. Synthetics are resistant to mildew

and rot, and stronger for equivalent diameters. They are resistant to abrasions and easy to handle.

Kernmantle

Kernmantle rope is rope that is not twisted. Instead, the “kern”

or interior core is made of units of nylon fibers. The mantle is

then woven around the outside of the nylon fibers.

Most rope rescue operations use nylon kernmantle ropes. The

nylon core supports as much as 90% of the load’s mass, while

the mantle protects the rope. Some kernmantle ropes have a

coating on top of the mantle that is designed to protect the rope

from water, cuts, and other damage. However, the coatings

make ropes slippery and therefore unsuitable for rope rescue.

Low-Stretch Ropes (Static Kernmantle - Rescue):

Kernmantle rope

 Strongest of the common rope types

 Thicker sheath, more abrasion resistant

 Tend to be stiffer than climbing ropes

 Stretches approximately 3-5% with a one-person load or 2% with a 200-lb. load

High-Stretch Ropes (Dynamic Kernmantle - Climbing):

 Not suitable for rescue operations except where single-person climbing is required

 The mantle is thinner than static ropes, susceptible to abrasion and dirt

 Stretches approximately 5-9% with a 200-lb. load

 Designed for single person load

 The high stretch absorbs shock in cases such as a falling lead climber (climbing above anchor

points). Lead climbing is beyond the scope of this training manual and program. Site specific

training must be provided to rescue personnel who may be required to climb.

Rope Attributes

Tensile Strength is the ability to withstand force that is applied slowly to the point of failure, e.g., with a

weight suspended from a rope.

Breaking Strength is the amount of force required to break the rope with a straight pull, such as in a tug-

of-war where the amount of pull gradually increases.

11-5

Accessory Cord is any narrow diameter rope made from nylon, polyester, Spectra, Kevlar or combination

thereof.

 Not pliable enough to be used for prusiks.

 Accessory cord used for radium load release hitches and other applications in technical rope

rescue is 100% nylon with a diameter of 8-9 mm.

Webbing

Webbing is primarily used for harnesses and slings. It can be best described as flat rope. Flat Webbing is

constructed of a single layer of materials, just like seat belt webbing. Tubular Webbing is used in high-

angle environments because it is more flexible. You can recognize tubular webbing because it is hollow

and forms a tube when two ends are squeezed inward. Tubular

webbing is:

 Sometimes preferable to rope

 Constructed of nylon or polyester

 More comfortable than rope against the body for

harnesses

 Has a wide, flat surface so it can be more abrasion resistant

in many rigging applications

L-R: Tubular, Flat

HARDWARE

Rescue teams use a number of pieces of hardware in their operations, including carabiners, brake bars,

descending equipment, pulleys, steel O rings, anchor plates, tri-links, stretchers, and more. Proper use

and care of the core pieces of hardware is described below.

Carabiners are metal connectors that link the elements of a rescue system. The basic parts of a

carabiner include the spine, hinge, lock, gate, and latch. Carabiners used in rope rescue:

 Must be inspected before and after every use

 Must be tested as per manufacturer's specifications

Basic Carabiner Shapes

Carabiners are manufactured in a variety of shapes. Each shape is designed for specific uses. The

strongest design is the D-shaped carabiner. The D-shaped spine is longer than the gate side, and the top

and bottom of the carabiner flare toward the spine. This design causes ropes attached to the carabiner

to slip into position along the spine, where the carabiner is strongest.

Claw

Spine

Lock

Locking Gate

Hinge

11-8

Warning: Locking carabiners can come open after being locked.

Additional Concerns for Locking Carabiners

If a carabiner frequently unlocks without an apparent cause, then it should be retired from service.

Carabiners are designed to be locked only to light-finger tightness. In their concern for safety in high-

angle environments, some people will over-tighten a locking carabiner and then be unable to unlock it.

This situation commonly occurs when a person tightens down hard on the seat harness carabiner while

someone is hanging in the harness.

If a carabiner locking mechanism becomes “frozen” through over-tightening, the following procedure

typically releases it:

1. If the carabiner is not already on a seat harness, attach it to one. Have the wearer move to a

secure position, such as away from the edge of any drop.

2. Attach the carabiner via a sling to a convenient anchor mode.

3. Reload the carabiner by sitting down with it attached to the anchor point.

4. In many cases, the locking nut can then be easily loosened.

5. If it still cannot be loosened, try tightly wrapping a short piece of webbing around the lock nut to

gain leverage.

6. If this does not work, using pliers may be the only remaining option.

Care and Maintenance

 Do not drop or strike against other objects

 Avoid chemical and particulate contamination

 To prevent accumulation of grit, do not apply oil excessively

All rescue equipment must be maintained and used in accordance with manufacturer’s

recommendations.

Using Carabiners Properly

A carabiner is strongest when loaded along its spine. Improper loading transfers the load to weaker

areas of the carabiner. This will dramatically reduce the strength of the attachment.

Tri-Links

Tri-links are designed to be loaded in three directions. They are very useful for anchoring

or rigging situations in which a carabiner would not be suitable due to undesirable side

loading.

Pulleys

Pulleys are used to change the direction of a pull on a rope. Some pulleys are

rated for single-person rescue only. The NFPA General Use minimum breaking

strength is 36 kN (8,093 lbf). For rope rescue, use the 4:1 pulley-to-rope ratio,

Side plates

meaning that the pulley size (also known as the “tread diameter”) is four

times the diameter of the rope.

Nut

Nut

Bearing

Sheave

11-9

Types of Pulleys

Single and double sheave pulleys are used primarily for building mechanical advantage systems. Most

double sheave pulleys come with a becket. The becket is an anchor point for attaching a carabiner to

secure the end of the rope.

Prusik Minding Pulleys (PMPs) are designed to prevent the prusik from passing through the pulley.

Swivel pulleys with side plates have side plates that can be opened while under load, making them

more versatile than regular pulleys. They come in single and double sheave.

Knot Passing Pulleys have a large throat that enables knots or bends (that attach two ropes together) to

pass through the pulley. This pulley can also be used for directional changes or edge protection.

L-R: Single Pulley, Prusik Minding Pulley, Swivel Pulley, Knot-Passing Pulley

Descent Devices

If given a choice for rope rescue operations, lowering systems are preferred because:

 They are simpler

 They require less rigging

 They use gravity as an advantage

 They require fewer personnel to operate

Other commercially made devices are approved for rescue systems. Operating this equipment

requires specific training. If using these devices, follow all manufacturer’s instructions.

Brake bar racks consist of a number of brake bars attached to a rack

designed for the purpose of braking. The amount of friction applied to the

rope can be adjusted by adding or removing bars and increasing the space

between the bars. Brake bar racks:

 Have a minimum breaking strength of 10,000 lbs (4,536 kg)

Threaded Brake Bar Rack

 Should be tested annually

 Are tied off with two wraps around the rack and two half hitches around the main load line

 Are variable friction devices, some have a thicker second bar or hyper bar, which improve

control and help dissipate heat

 Use in-line operation, can control two ropes simultaneously. Can have up to six bars and worn

out bars can be replaced.

 Should be operated as per manufacturer’s recommendations. To avoid falling, make certain to

pre-tension the brake rack. Rescuers pre-tension brake racks every time the bar is used. To pre-

tension the brake rack:

1. Establish a plumb point. Hold the load-side knot tight about two inches past the access

11-10

edge and then around the first bar of the brake rack.

2. Tie off the rescuer holding the load side while making sure the load-side rescuer maintains

the plumb point.

3. The other rescuer then weaves the rope through the remaining bars and locks the brake

rack.

4. Attach the safety belay to the load, followed by the main line. Slowly work the belay system

until it is loaded.

Steel O-Rings are used for rigging anchor systems, and are also used as a Master

Point of Attachment.

 They are very strong, with a strength margin of at least 20:1.

 They can safely accommodate a main line, safety belay line, and rigging

harness.

Steel O-Ring

 They have an inside diameter of three inches.

Anchor Plates for anchor systems make an excellent collection point and allow

rescuers to set up their systems quickly and cleanly.

Edge/anchor protection prevents damage to the rope and is commonly used when

attaching rigging to anchors. There are commercial products available or they can be

improvised on-site. Every effort should be made to prevent damage to the rope.

Anchor Plates

Rescue Stretchers

A variety of stretchers are available, but only ones designed for rope rescue should be used. Carry and

evacuation stretchers are not designed to handle the same stresses. Most stretchers are either plastic or

metal, and some come equipped with head protection and attachment points for carabiners. Read all

manufacturer's instructions and specifications when determining which stretchers to use. Stretchers

should be inspected before and after every use.

Flexible plastic:

Portable, light, fits

through small

Metal: has a metal tubing frame.

openings.

Some are lined with wire or plastic.

This type is very rugged.

Plastic: made of high-density

polyethylene shell with a metal frame.

Works well on dirt, grass and snow

surfaces.

Two piece: easier to carry to remote

locations.

Fiberglass/Composite: durable, light

weight, not affected by extreme cold.

11-11

KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES

Knots are essential components of all rope rescue operations. The knot you use depends on the situation

and environment of the rescue. Rescuers must be able to tie the following knots, bends, and hitches in

all conditions. When deciding on a knot, consider the following factors:

 The knot must have been proven to be safe for its intended use.

 The knot must be strong enough for its role in the operation.

 It must be easy to tie and untie.

All knots reduce the strength of the rope. The knot must not affect the strength of the system beyond

the acceptable safety factor.

For animations of the following knots, bends, and hitches, please visit http://www.animatedknots.com.

Terminology

Knot: A connection method used in rope or as in webbing to tie it to itself.

Bend: A tie that connects the ends of two ropes or webbing together.

Hitch: A tie that attaches a rope or webbing to another object such that if the object were removed the

tie would fall apart.

Bight: A bight is an open turn formed when a rope is doubled back upon itself making a turn but not

crossing over itself.

Standing Part: The inactive section of rope during the process of tying a knot.

Running End: The end of rope that threads through to complete the knot.

Loop: A turn of rope that crosses itself.

Tail: The free end of rope that extends from a knot.

Safety Knots: Used to prevent fraying and to stop from sliding through a block, hole, or other knot.

Name

Notes

Diagram

Overhand Knot

Basic safety knot

Figure Eight

Basic safety knot

11-12

Knots

Name

Notes

Diagram

Bowline

A loop that will not jam, slip, or fail

Bowline on the

Creates a double loop

Bight

Figure of Eight on

Creates a loop that forms the main

a Bight

point of attachment

Double Figure of

Creates two loops that form the

Eight

main point of attachment

Butterfly Knot

Creates a loop in the standing part

of the rope that provides an

attachment point for multi-

directional use

11-13

Bends

Name

Notes

Diagram

Double

Used for tying two ropes of

Sheetbend

unequal size together

Double

Used to join two ropes of equal

Fisherman's

diameter

Ring Bend

For connecting webbing to

webbing

Figure of Eight

Used to tie two rope ends

Bend

together end-to-end, in order to

extend them.

Figure of Eight

Used to anchor a rope around an

Follow-Through

object without the need of other

equipment.

11-14

Hitches

Name

Notes

Diagram

Clove Hitch

Used for securing a rope to a pole

or post. It is often used as a

starting point in lashing.

Timber Hitch

Used to hoist or drag timber or

pipes

Munter Hitch

Used for single-person belaying in

low-angle situations

Prusik

Friction hitch used to attach a

larger diameter rope without

knotting the rope. For hauling and

brakes, use a three-wrap prusik.

Tensionless Hitch

Used for anchoring a rope

Two Round Turns

Used to secure rope to a post or

with Two Half

pipe. Will take heavy strain without

Hitches

slipping or jamming.

Cat’s Paw

Used to secure rope to hooks and

rings

11-15

HARNESSES

Harnesses are designed to protect and hold the user's body. The type of harness used depends on the

task to be carried out. In rope rescue, they are most commonly used to raise or lower a casualty.

Butterfly Harness (Fig. 11-43)

The butterfly harness is used when only a rope is available to safely lower or raise a casualty from one

height to another. It is not to be used as a working or rescue harness. Any impairment to the circulation

to parts of the casualty’s body can have serious consequences. The rope diameter should be 11mm or

greater. Rescuers must also ensure that the duration of suspension is kept as brief as possible.

1. Measure four double arm lengths (approx. 20 feet, 6 m)

of rope across the body to provide enough working line

and tie an ordinary slip knot to form the first loop for one

of the casualty’s legs.

2. Place the loop around the casualty’s right thigh, well up

into the crotch. The rescuer’s left hand holds the eye of

the slip knot in the center of the casualty’s body just

below the chest.

11-16

3. Wrap a second loop around the casualty’s left thigh,

well up into the crotch and form a third loop. Push the

third loop through the eye that is held secure by the

rescuer’s left hand.

4. Place the third loop under the casualty’s left arm and

over the right shoulder, then thread back through the

eye. Make sure the rope enters through the eye as

shown.

5. Continue the line and lay it across the left side of the

casualty’s neck. Continue along the casualty’s back and

under the right arm and bring it back through the eye on

the chest forming the fourth loop at the eye.

Note: There will now be an X pattern from the rope on

the casualty’s back.

11-17

6. Tighten the eye snugly on all four loops by pulling on

the hauling line which closes the eye. Adjust the harness

for both tightness and comfort. Secure the eye to the

loops with two half hitches to prevent slipping and

tightening of the knot on the casualty’s body.

7. Tighten the half hitches to complete the harness. A

safety knot can be tied in the harness rope tail or the tail

can be connected to a separate rope line.

If possible, place padding between the rope and the

casualty’s body where there are points of pressure.

11-18

Webbing Harness (Upright)

Made from webbing, this harness is for an upright person who requires an easy, quickly made full-body

harness. It is to be used for short periods of time only, especially if suspended. There are many

variations of this method, including a commercially made ready-to-use type.

Start by building the seat portion, and then build the chest portion. Finish by connecting the two

together. Avoid placing the knot at locations that will cause pressure points on the wearer’s body.

Seat Harness

1. Use a 15 foot length of webbing tied together in

2. Hold the webbing at the waist line, hang a bend

a loop with a ring bend. If the fit of the harness is

behind and in between the legs of the wearer. Pull

too large, it can be adjusted at the ring bend by

the hanging bend through the legs to the front to

lengthening the tails.

meet the two made at waist level.

VERSION A: 3. Connect all the bends together with a carabiner.

11-19

VERSION B (Fits smaller people better): 3. Grab the hanging bend that came from beneath the legs,

separate, and pass it under each bend created at the waist. Pull these outwards to adjust fit, bring them

together in front of the casualty, and attach them with a carabiner.

4. Have the wearer hold the carabiner while checking the fit and then begin building the chest portion.

In some cases it is easier to build the chest portion first and let the carabiner hang. When the web seat is

ready attach the two portions together to form the full body harness.

11-20

Chest Harness

1. Use a 12-foot length of webbing connected in a

2. Twist and hold the webbing so that there is a

loop with a ring bend. If the harness is too large for

loop for each arm. Check that there is a crossover

the wearer, it can be adjusted at the ring bend by

of the web on the person’s back. Modifications

lengthening the tails. Avoid placing the knot in

may be required if physical injuries are aggravated

such a way that it creates pressure points on the

by the webbing.

wearer’s body.

3. Pull the two arm loops to the front of wearer to snug and adjust the length if required.

11-21

Connect the seat and chest harness together with the carabiner to form the full body harness. Complete

the following checks:

 Have the wearer lean back slightly while holding the carabiner. The weight should be on the seat

portion and it should be comfortable.

 The harness should be snug so that it will not slip off during movement.

 Tie safety knots on any hanging ring bend tails that could interfere with rigging.

 The carabiner must not be side loaded and gate lock must be checked before and after attaching

rope rigging systems.

4. If there is a long distance between the seat

and chest connection points that prevents the

use of a single carabiner to attach together, the

following methods can be used as long as both

harnesses are securely attached to each other:

 Add another carabiner and connect one

to the seat and other to the chest

harness. To complete connect the

carabiners directly to each other.

 Add another carabiner. Use a short

webbing or prusik cord to connect

between chest and seat harness

carabiners.

11-22

Webbing Harness

This harness is used for casualties who are either unconscious or supine and require a rapid rescue.

1. Use a 24-foot (7.3 m) webbing tied together

2. Lift legs and pull the webbing up through the

with a ring bend to form a large loop. Encircle the

thighs.

casualty that requires rescue.

3. Grab a portion of web lying on the floor by

4. Take the web portion that lays across the chest

casualty through the loop end from the legs.

area. Pull and place it behind the casualty’s neck.

Option:

Pull the two new bends to snug the webbing

around the wearer or connect them together

with a carabiner. Rescuers can now drag or pull

the casualty to be rescued like a sled.

11-23

5. Pull on the webbing to snug the harness to the

6. If the web was placed behind the neck, the

wearer. The casualty can now be dragged or

rescuers can also lift the casualty off the floor or

pulled from a hazardous location to a safer area

obstacles by putting webbing straps over their own

by the rescuers.

shoulders. The rescuers can now move together to a

safe area in an almost full standing position.

For a rapidly applied harness, the webbing and the

part behind the head causes minimal discomfort.

11-24

Blanketing a Stretcher

There are various methods to blanketing a stretcher but the objectives are the same:

 Provide the casualty with warmth for shock or environmental conditions.

 Comfort the casualty by ensuring there is nothing that can cause pressure points on the

casualty’s body.

 Allow a rescuer to quickly access the vital signs and injuries of the casualty.

 Keep the blankets from being loose and potentially getting into rigging systems.

1. Lay blankets as shown. Avoid

2. Load casualty in, leave a space

3. Wrap around legs.

any bumps that could cause a

at least 4” from head to the rail if

Keep loose at feet if a rope tie-

pressure point

possible

in is to be used.

4. Finish by pulling the upper body blanket over and tucking it in.

11-25

Herringbone Tie-In

The herringbone tie-in can be accomplished with either webbing or a rope (use a large diameter such as

11mm to avoid discomfort to the casualty). The common length of a dedicated tie-in web or rope is at

least 60 feet (18 meters). If done correctly the herringbone can be easily “unzipped” after undoing the

last securing knots, which can be useful if a casualty needs to be removed from basket quickly and

transferred to an ambulance cot.

1. Using a dedicated tie in length, thread half of it through the bottom section of the stretcher, below

the lowest cross member. Half the tie will be each side of the stretcher.

2. If using a rope, lay the center of the tie in on top

of the stretcher rail (1^st loop), wrap around the

feet with a clove hitch, pull the loop between the

feet over the clove hitch. This can also be

accomplished by wrapping the casualty’s feet,

making a clove hitch then pulling some slack to

make the first loop that is then placed from the

feet bottom over and between the feet. Twist the

loop if it is too long.

3. If using webbing, form bights on each side of

stretcher. Pull one through the stretcher and push

through the 1^st loop at the feet. Repeat with the

other side to make a third. Keep tension as the tie

in progresses. If there are double rails on the

stretcher, it is preferred to thread under the

bottom one as this pulls downward for a tighter fit.

11-27

4. Work up the stretcher repeating

Step 3 using each cross member in

turn. Maintain tightness as it

progresses. Avoid placing bight

ends over knees, groin, diaphragm

(just under rib line) and any

injuries. The last bight loop must be

well away from throat.

5. When you reach the top cross

member, tighten each running end

over the casualty’s shoulders

making sure they are well padded.

Tie off on the stretcher frame with

clove hitches.

11-28

6. Check tightness of the whole tie-in starting at feet. Move final clove hitch towards stretcher cross

member near casualty’s shoulder or fully trap the knot by tying around both sides of it. Place left over

rope or webbing under all to keep from falling out or interfering with rigging systems. Bottom Right: Tie-

in using webbing.

Releasing the herringbone basket stretcher tie-in to let patient out of stretcher:

1. Undo last part of tie-in

2. Pull bends out each side

3. Unwrap feet

Example of trapping cross member with a clove hitch:

11-29

Diamond Lashing

This method is uses webbing to secure a casualty in a stretcher. It takes longer to remove from a

stretcher than the herringbone method.

1. Start with an 18 m (60 ft) length of webbing

(minimum diameter 25 mm). Fold in half and

wrap around the centre of the top rung on the

foot end of the stretcher.

2. Looking from the bottom of

the stretcher, with the right

tail go around the outside of

the left foot and continue

along the top of both feet to

the opposite (right) foot, then

go around and up through the

middle. This tail will continue

through to the left side when

looking from the foot end of

the stretcher.

START HERE

11-30

3. Looking from the bottom

of the stretcher, go around

the outside of the right

foot with the other web tail

and continue along the top

of both feet to the opposite

(left) foot. Go around and

up through the middle. This

tail will continue through to

the left side when looking

from the foot end of the

stretcher.

Start Here

4. Both web tails will

continue up to the opposite

sides to the first rung on the

stretcher incorporating the

first post.

11-31

5. Continue to crisscross up

the patient to the opposite

sides of the stretcher creating

diamonds across the body

incorporating

the

posts.

Always use the bottom rung.

6. The last cross should be

across the chest area and over

the shoulders to hold them

down.

11-32

7. Continue to the head of the

stretcher tying a clove hitch on

the top rung, making sure to

incorporate the post.

8. Repeat the same with the

opposite side.

11-33

9. Secure the loose ends OPTION: Follow down the two sides tying half hitches.

10. When done the patient should be secured to the stretcher with no excessive slack in the webbing

and patient should not be choked with the last cross on the chest. To test the system, lift the head end

of the stretcher up to vertical, the patient should not drop within the lashing.

11-34

Furley Stretcher Tie-In

This tie-in securely lashes a casualty to a furley

stretcher.

Stretcher Bridle Examples

Typical stretcher attachment tied

Attachment that works well for

Example of a commercially

with webbing

plastic baskets. The web tails

manufactured bridle

can be used to secure an inner

support piece such as a spine

board.

Commercially available stretcher attachments

11-35

ANCHORS

High forces are often encountered during rope rescue operations. Anchors that are solid and

unmovable relative to the load being applied (“bombproof”) are needed to connect the systems.

Because it is often difficult to assess the strength of an anchor, rescuers should be incorporating two or

more anchors into the system whenever possible.

Anchor Leverage: To reduce leverage on a vertical anchor, secure the anchor attachment close to the

ground. Minimizing the effects of leverage will maximize the strength of the anchor.

Critical Angle: Sometimes, anchors will not be in line with the rescue. In these instances it might be

necessary to build a bridle anchor from two anchor points. These angles will create vector forces on the

chosen anchors. It is imperative mine rescuers understand these forces.

Fig. 11-1: Different angles and their respective vector forces

11-36

There may be cases where there is only a single bombproof anchor to use. When this happens, separate

attachment points must be put in place. (Example: Two independent webbing wraps with their own

separate connection points. Another method is to use a rated manufactured multi-anchor point plate.)

Anchor attachment points can be extended from the bombproof anchor to a more favourable location

for rigging. An example of this is adding an extension and making the anchor attachment point more

accessible for rescuers working around the edge of a fall area. The rescuers can then connect their

harness in the extended anchor point for fall protection or fall restraint.

Rope Anchor Attachments

Figure 8 follow through with a Figure 8 on a Bight: Requires three feet of rope plus length needed to

wrap around anchor. The Figure 8 on a Bight is the working end.

Tensionless hitch: Used on cylinder shaped anchors. Rope is wrapped three or more times. The anchor

should be at least 10 times the rope’s diameter. Use a figure of eight on a bight with a carabiner or a

figure eight follow through to secure the loose end of the rope.

Simple Slung (Single Loop)

Wrap a single strand of webbing around an anchor and join the ends with a

ring bend. The ring bend will be extremely difficult to untie once loaded.

When the internal angle of the sling legs is less than 90°, it can bear forces as

high as 22 kN, which is only suitable for a single person load

Basket Hitch

Keep the angle between the legs to less than 45°. Any greater angle may

result in the carabiner being side-loaded. Not recommend for use where the

direction of pull is changing because the legs of the hitch will not load evenly.

This will significantly reduce its strength. It is suitable for a two-person or

rescue-size load.

Wrap-3-Pull-2

Wrap-3-Pull-2 is an anchor attachment that can be tied with webbing. Very

little strength is lost when tied properly with the tied ends of the webbing

facing the load and against the anchor.

Advantages

 Allows carabiner to slide around equalize to avoid side loading.

 When tensioned, it cinches on to the tree to allow secure placement of high-point directional

pulleys.

Tying

1. Wrap three times around the anchor point.

2. Tie the long leg with an overhand trace back with the short leg to create a ring bend.

3. Position load side against the anchor point.

4. Pull the two unknotted loops forward and clip with a carabiner.

11-39

Picket Anchor Systems

The picket system is one alternative when no anchors are available in a wilderness area. However, picket

systems require a great deal of time to prepare for rescue use.

Picket System Set-Up

1. The pickets should be 1 in (2.5 cm) diameter and have a length of 4-5 ft (1.2-1.5 m), so that

there will be a minimum of 2/3 of the length in the ground.

2. Drive the pickets at an angle of 15 degrees away from the force to be anchored.

3. Connect the pickets in each row together by lashing from the top of the first picket (the one

closest to the load with a clove hitch) to the bottom of the next picket three to four times

and tie off at base. Continue in this manner until all rows of pickets are lashed together. Use

12.7-mm (1/2 in) rope or webbing approximately 50 ft (15 m) long.

4. Tension the lashings by twisting with a stick four to six turns. Drive this stick into the ground

to secure it.

5. Connect the main line by clipping it to the front picket in each row.

Multiple anchor points may be required to establish a bombproof anchor. Remember the 10:1

safety factor.

11-40

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGES

Mechanical advantages (MA) are built by the use of pulleys and ropes. They are used in rescue

operations where a load needs to be lifted. MA pulley systems assist in raising loads by reducing the

amount of force needed. For example, a system with a MA of 5:1 requires only a fifth of the force used

in a 1:1 system. This MA will require five times more length of rope to be pulled (pulling a rope five

metres in a 5:1 pulley system will move the load one metre).

Simple systems use ropes attached directly to the load or anchor while the other end of the rope is

where to apply the force to move the load.

 The MA will always be an odd number when the rope is tied to the load. It will be even when

tied to the anchor.

 An easy method to determine the MA of a simple pulley system to count how many ropes are

used in the system. Note: If the final rope is being pulled in the opposite direction of the load

travel, it is considered a change of direction and is not counted toward the calculation of the

total MA.

 Make certain that pulleys are aligned and avoid having a rope crossover within the MA causing

friction or twisting. Simple systems with a MA of more than 5:1 are more likely to encounter this

problem and should be avoided if possible. In these circumstances consider a compound system.

11-41

11-42

Prusiks

The prusik grab point (or haul prusik) is the prusik wrap that attaches one MA to another in compound

systems and allows one to pull the other. Placed in a Z-Rig, it allows a mechanical advantage to pull on

itself (same rope). It is the component that slides for a reset when the pulleys become chocked (too

close together). Only one prusik of 8mm or 9mm is used for this operation. A slipping prusik is a good

indicator of excessive forces being applied in the system. Some mechanical rope grab devices can cause

damage to rope, if using manufacturer procedures must be followed.

A ratchet prusik is placed in a haul system to safely hold a load (park brake) while resetting the pulling

mechanical advantage in compound and Z-Rig setups. It also acts as a safety on the haul line. For large

loads (> one person 300 lbs (136 kg)), use tandem prusiks. Adding a prusik minding pulley allows the

prusiks on the haul line to operate the same as a Tandem Prusik Safety Belay when raising a load. There

are commercial devices available that provide the same functions of this rigging.

Compound systems add a second or more pulley systems to the first pulley system (MA pulling a MA).

 To determine the MA of a compound system, multiply the MA of the two systems to determine

the total MA. E.g., if one system is 3:1 and the other is 2:1, the total MA is 6:1 (3x2).

 If resetting a compound pulley system in which the two systems have different Mas, attach the

system with a lower MA to the load and pull this with the higher MA. In some circumstances this

rule of thumb will not work for the task at hand.

 Ideally separate anchors are used for each MA, spread apart by a metre or more.

11-43

Z-Rig Mechanical Advantage Systems

Z-Rigs are used extensively in rope rescue systems. A Z-Rig MA is a 3:1 MA made with a single rope and

can easily be changed to a higher MA. The Z-rig gets its name from the shape it forms when constructed.

11-44

Complex Mechanical Advantage Systems

A complex MA system involves combining two simple MA systems so that the travelling pulleys collapse

together. The main advantage of complex systems is that they need less equipment to accomplish a

larger MA.

11-45

Change of Direction

A change of direction (COD) within a MA is where the pulling force on the rope end is traveling in the

opposite direction of the load travel. Example: Pulling downwards on a MA while the load is traveling

upwards.

In some rope rigging situations, a COD pulley on a separate bombproof anchor might be required. (If the

distance between a highpoint COD and the ground creates a drop high enough to cause harm, then the

rigging should be run at ground level.)

Examples of when to use a COD:

 Structural situations where a COD is needed because of limited space to rig

 Situations where the main anchor point causes the haul line to not align with the load

 For embankment-type rescues where MA hauling and reset distances are limited

 Using building support beams as High Directional Anchor (HDA)

 Rigging for a cliff or severe edge where a high point is needed, such as on an A frame.

11-46

Large Mechanical Advantage Systems

Most rescues can be accomplished with a 6:1 pulley system. 8:1 and 9:1 systems are generally not

recommended because of the amount of rope and space required. They also have less “feel” for the

load being pulled, leading to too much force being exerted and potentially damaging the system. Safe

working loads of rigging equipment must be considered in terms of force applied by these larger MAs.

Rescuer Pulling Force

The average rescuer can pull with a maximum force of 23 kg (55 lbs). Before using a pulley system,

calculate roughly how much force will be exerted by the rescuers and the MA. A prusik will slip at

around 500 kg (1100 lbs). Rescuers need to do a system check and re-examine the load weight including

the pulling forces being applied when this occurs.

BELAYS

Belaying is used to protect a person or load from falling. Some methods are designed for light loads,

such as a single person. For heavier loads, rescuers use a safety belay system.

Munter Belay techniques can be used for a single person safety line on low-angle consolidated slope.

The advantage is quick setup in situations where a critical casualty requires immediate first aid.

11-47

Munter belay techniques are not to be used for any technical rescue operations, such as high-

structural or cliff rescues, in which a serious fall could occur. These belay methods do not pass the

Whistle Test: If, in theory, at any point a whistle were blown that signals all personnel to stop and

remove their hands from the system, nothing catastrophic will occur to the live load.

Safety Belay Systems

Main rope rescue lines can fail due to equipment failure, human error or environmental conditions. The

best practice for mine rescue rope rigging is the use of a second independent rope system as a back-up

when lowering or raising loads.

Functions of a safety belay system:

 Catches the load of the main line if it fails without an operator to engage it. Normally the safety

belay system should never come under tension unless there has been a failure. (Note: The use

of two-line systems with each line acting as both load and safety belay are used in some rescue

operations. This technique requires specific training and is not included in this manual.)

 Must be able to survive the event sufficiently undamaged and allow load to move up or down.

 The Maximum Arrest Force (MAF) must not cause injury to the rescuer or casualty, nor may it

cause a system failure such as pulling out an anchor or cutting the rope on an edge.

 The stopping distance must be short enough to prevent the load from hitting obstacles.

 Must work in any environment.

 Rescuers must be able to operate the load under tension after it has been engaged with a load-

releasing hitch.

A variety of belaying equipment is commercially available. If any equipment used is not

mentioned in this manual, please follow the manufacturer’s recommendations to avoid misuse.

Belay Operation

1. The Prusiks should be held together in

one hand in a thumbless grip (belay

hand), to facilitate releasing. The thumb

does not wrap around the Prusiks.

2. The hand should be held thumb up and

with the opening towards the load by

twisting the wrist. This wrist-twisting

allows the belayer to monitor the

amount of slack in the belay rope so that

it can be kept to a minimum without the

Prusiks accidentally grabbing. It also

positions the Prusiks 90° to the direction of the belay line which aids in their ability to grab.

3. The second hand is used to pull the belay rope up through the Prusiks held in the belay hand.

4. Make sure the Prusiks remain snug on the rope through the operation.

11-48

5. In the event of a failure of the load system the pull of the belay rope should snap the Prusiks out

of the operator’s hands and allow them to grab quickly and without the belayer having to do

anything.

Radium Release Hitch

The radium release hitch is designed for releasing loads on ropes such as jammed safety belay prusiks

and passing knots in the main line system during lowers. They are also used when you need to be able to

lower a leading-edge directional pulley to allow a load to pass.

Use two large locking 'D'-shaped carabiners and a 10-m length of 8-mm cordage.

1.

Place two carabiners on the ground with the gates facing right, claws facing the position of

function bottom down, top up.

2.

Tie a small figure eight-on-a-bight in one end of the cord and clip it into the load-side of the

carabiner.

3.

Wrap the top carbiner and then (3) back down through the load carabiner, then back up to the

anchor carabiner and incorporating a (4-5) Munter hitch on that carabiner on its gate side.

5

2

4

6

3

1

9

10

8

11.

13.

7

12.

4. Complete the Munter hitch wrap around all of the cordage strands (6-7). Pull a long loop

through the bight created (8), and snug this up tight against the Munter.

5. Ensure that the Munter hitch is in the release position with the in-feed rope on the gate side of

the carabiner. Secure with an overhand safety around the entire stem. (9-13)

11-49

Tandem Prusik Safety Belay

The tandem prusik belay system is designed to capture rescue-size loads. It also incorporates a load

releasing hitch (Radium Release Hitch). A single prusik will slip if overly loaded and the spacing between

the wraps allows them both to work without interfering with each other.

Components of a Prusik Safety Belay

 A Radium Release Hitch attached to the anchor attachment point. The Munter hitch is on the

anchor side

 A Prusik Minding Pulley (PMP) attached to the release hitch. Note: Not required for a lowering

operation but very beneficial when retrieving, such as when raising rigging.

 A short prusik approx. 5 ft (1.5 m) long and a long prusik approx. 6 ft (1.8 m) long attached to

load release connection and then both triple prusik wrapped around the belay rope. The shorter

prusik is set closer to the anchor with approximately two fingers to a hand-width of space

between its wraps and the second longer prusik wraps. Note: These lengths work well for 2-in

(5-cm) or 3-in (7.5-cm) PMPs.

11-50

RAPPELLING

Rappelling is the act of descending a rope with the use of a descent control device operated by the

rescuer. There are many devices that can be used for this but most rescue teams use a “personal” brake

bar or micro rack. There are various other commercial devices designed for this application. The

descending device is connected to the rescuer’s harness with

a locking carabiner.

For mine rescue rappelling operations over 30-degree (steep

or high) angles, a safety belay line must be connected from a

separate bombproof anchor point to the rappelling rescuer’s

harness. The belay system must include tandem prusiks or an

approved commercial belay device.

Rescuers must be trained and competent in using the device

and be able to stop part way in the descent and able to either

use a tie-off procedure or a locking mechanism in some

devices. Dangerous errors include using an inappropriate

reeve of the rope on a brake bar and inserting rope in the

wrong direction in a commercial descent device.

Before Beginning a Rappelling Operation

 Completely check anchors, rope systems, attachment points, carabiner locks, rescuers harness

and PPE.

 Ensure rappel distance does not exceed rope length.

 Connect the main line to the waist ‘D’ attachment. The belay is connected to the sternal (chest)

or dorsal (back) attachment depending on the situation.

 Person assigned to operate and monitor the safety belay line must be ready to provide

appropriate slack throughout and remain with that task until the rappel has been completed.

 Check that rescuers working near edges are on fall restraint or fall arrest rigging.

 Add edge protection to prevent rope damage, look for sharp or loose edge materials such as

rocks and building flashings.

 Check the surface of the face that the rescuer will travel along for hazards, ice, slippery wet,

loose materials, and snags.

 Consider rope stretch on initial load on rappel line at transition point (edge).

 Review rope angles. If a high anchor point is not available, the rappel person may have to crawl

over edge to get set rather than use the “stand and lean back” rappel procedure.

 Check that the starting point is not directly over a hazard, casualty, or fellow rescuer.

 Avoid creating the potential for swinging by starting too far away from the direct line (vertical

fall line) of rappel in relation to the anchor attachment point.

11-51

Air moves through a mine by two methods:

 Natural Ventilation

 Mechanical Ventilation

Natural Ventilation

Some mines, especially those in mountainous terrain, have natural ventilation caused by differences in

pressure inside and outside the mine and by differences in the relative weight of warm and cold air.

While all mines with operating diesel equipment are required to use mechanical ventilation, a basic

understanding of natural ventilation principles will assist in mine rescue operations.

Mechanical Ventilation

While natural mine ventilation can be very effective, it

is not reliable. Mechanical ventilation is required

when using internal combustion engines where a

specific volume of air is required. This is accomplished

by installing fans at mine openings or inside the mine.

Mine fans are simply a means of changing the air

pressure at specific points in the mine.

12-5

Positive pressure ventilation uses a fan to create a

high-pressure zone. In underground operations, this

is done by placing a fan at the entrance of a tunnel,

facing inwards. The high-pressure air in front of the

fan will flow to the lower pressure areas further

from the fan. The scooping action of the fan blades

prevents the air from flowing back through the fan.

Push pull ventilation involves combining a positive pressure fan and an exhaust fan to create a pressure

difference that will increase the air flow.

Auxiliary ventilation is used to direct air flows from the main ventilation route to dead-end headings.

fan

fan

Blowing Fan

Exhausting Fan

Air Distribution

Fig 12.1: Blowing and Exhausting fans providing auxiliary ventilation

As air flows through a mine it always takes the easiest path, that is, the path that offers the least

resistance. The resistance to air flow is determined by:

 The amount of air passing

 The roughness of the openings it is passing through (friction)

 The size of the openings

 The length of the openings

Air will pass much more easily through a large diameter, smooth-walled tunnel than it will through a

small diameter, heavily timbered tunnel. Restrictions in tunnels such as locomotives, trackless mining

equipment, conveyors, ventilation regulators, etc., will add to the resistance of a mine opening and

make it more difficult for air to pass.

12-6

INSTRUMENTS USED IN VENTILATION WORK

A manometer is a U-shaped transparent tube partially filled with liquid

used to determine pressure differentials across a stopping or bulkhead

(wall of a refuge station). The difference in fluid height in a liquid column

manometer is proportional to the pressure difference.

An anemometer is used to measure air velocity. It consists of a small

fan that is rotated by the air current. The instrument is calibrated so

that each revolution of the vane corresponds to a unit of air travel.

A velometer is a small direct reading instrument used to measure the

velocity of air at a specific point. Pressure exerted on a vane travelling

in a circular tunnel causes a pointer to indicate the velocity of air moving

through mine workings. The following formula is used to calculate the

volume of air and its flow:

Volume Calculation

m

Heigℎt (m) × Widtℎ (m) × Velometer Reading (velocity

)

s

= Volume of Air (cubic metres per second)

E.g., 3 m x 5 m x 3 m/s = 45 m³ /s

Smoke tubes are used to measure low ventilation flows that cannot be

detected with a velometer or anemometer. They provide an indication of

air movement over distance. To determine the velocity, choose a set

distance (e.g., 50 m, 100 m) and measure the time it takes for the smoke

to travel that distance. Once that data is recorded, use the volume

calculation formula.

A barometer is an instrument used to measure the pressure of the

atmosphere. A rapid fall in the barometer indicates a decrease in the

atmospheric pressure that in turn decreases the mine ventilating

pressure. This would allow the gases in gobs and abandoned workings

to expand and flow into the active workings, creating a dangerous

condition.

12-8

MINE DRAWINGS

Maintaining up-to-date drawings of mine workings is essential for the day-to-day operation of a mine.

Drawings for use by mine rescue teams should show at a minimum the locations of shafts, travelways,

electrical systems, working places, refuge stations, and ventilation flows. This information is integral to

mine rescue response. Three types of mine drawings are commonly used:

Isometric drawings are three-dimensional pictures of the mine workings. It shows

what the workings would look like if all the rock surrounding the mine openings was

transparent. With the advent of trackless mining methods using inclined and spiral ramps,

normal mine drawings become quite difficult to read unless you are familiar with the mine

layout, whereas isometric drawings provide a quick overview.

12-9

Plan view mine drawings provide an overhead view of a mine. Mines will have separate plans

drawn for each level in the mine. They are drawn at various scales and the scale will always be

noted on the drawing. A legend will be included to indicate the symbols used for fans, ventilation

doors, shafts, raises, ore passes and so on. The symbols may vary from mine to mine.

Mines with large vertical dimensions require the use of sectional views to obtain a good

representation of the mine layout. A section can be thought of as a vertical plan. Mines may

have one very long dimension and one short dimension, resulting in the use of two kinds of

sections: longitudinal sections along the long dimension and cross-sections across the shorter

dimension (the width of the ore body).

12-10

UNDERGROUND MINE FIRES - CONTROL AND SUPPRESSION

Underground rescue workers must have a basic knowledge of the chemistry and behaviour of fire.

Underground fires are classified in the same way as fires on surface and progress through the same four

phases. Firefighting techniques are similar but have been adapted to take into account the unique

conditions present underground.

Methods

Direct Attacks are employed in the early stages of a fire by using agents such as water (hose lines),

foam, fire extinguishers, rock dust or sand. Unless a fire can be put out within a few hours by direct

attack, teams use an indirect method. Note: Rescuers must be aware of the hazards of water on super-

heated rock (loose or spalling), electricity, steam conversion, and catastrophic failure of tires.

Indirect Attacks are used when a fire poses too many hazards to rescue teams to combat directly and

only after all personnel in the mine have been accounted for. Methods include:

 Sealing

 Flooding with water

 Smothering with high-expansion foam, silt, fill, other solids or inert gas

The decision to use an indirect attack can only be made by on-site incident command.

Sealing

Mine fires should be sealed when progress cannot be made by fighting them directly or when other

conditions, such as inaccessibility or probable dangerous accumulations of explosive gas, make sealing

advisable. Seals should be built on the intake and exhaust sides simultaneously. If this is not possible,

the seal on the fresh air side should be put up first.

If the exhaust side is sealed first, the rescue team will be in danger from the extremely toxic and hot

atmosphere. The team will also face the danger of an explosion caused by explosive gases backing up

over the seat of the fire.

Stoppings should be set at an adequate distance in the opening and as close to the fire as safety permits.

Allow enough room for a secondary seal. All ground in the vicinity of the stopping must be well checked

and scaled down.

After sealing is complete, all non-mine rescue personnel must immediately leave the fire area until it is

safe to return. If workers have been trapped in the mine, mine rescue teams must focus on rescuing

them as soon as practical.

Temporary seals are erected in an effort to quickly exclude most of

the air from a fire and are later supplemented by airtight permanent

seals. Common types of temporary stoppings or seals include:

 Brattice, engineered fabric, or heavy-gauge plastic

 Sandbags

 Lumber

12-11

 Commercially available inflatable bulkheads

Permanent seals are constructed after erecting temporary seals, and should be built

of heavy construction material strong enough to withstand an explosion, pressure, or

crushing, such as:

 Brick

 Concrete

 Steel

 Shotcrete

Flooding with water

Flooding an enclosed area of a mine with water is another way to deal with an out-of-control fire.

Flooding is only performed as a last resort because it makes any later recovery work difficult in that

area.

Deciding to Seal a Mine Fire

There are no set rules for sealing mine fires. It is the duty of the rescue teams to collect as much

information as possible about the fire and to relay this information to the emergency operations centre.

In turn, it is the duty of emergency operations centre to evaluate the information and decide whether to

seal the fire or continue to search for trapped or missing persons, but they must consider the welfare

and the safety of the rescue teams at all times.

Deciding to Unseal a Mine Fire

No attempts should be made to unseal a mine fire until:

 Oxygen content of the sealed atmosphere is low enough to eliminate the possibility of

explosions

 Carbon monoxide (indicator of combustion) has been reduced to a safe level, and

 The temperature has cooled down well below the point of ignition

Gas tests of the atmosphere behind the stoppings should be taken at reasonable intervals as

determined by the Emergency Operations Centre. Gas tests should be taken through the seal with as

little disturbance as possible to the seal. Mine rescue teams testing gas levels must wear SCBAs.

Smothering

High-expansion foam removes two legs of the fire triangle:

oxygen and heat. The foam smothers and cools the fire at the

same time. However, smothering foam can only be used to fight

Class A and B fires. It is most commonly used in controlling fires

that cannot be approached at a close range.

Teams should not travel through foam-filled areas because the

foam can lead to difficulty hearing, blocked vision, and slick

surfaces. Teams should clear the foam as much as possible, such

as by using a water fog stream.

Steam conversion in high-expansion foam may result in dangerously low oxygen levels.

12-12

Structural entry

 Identify and establish access and egress points

 Identify hazards (check doors, windows for heat, smoke, signage, contents)

 Gaining access through doors, windows, walls, forcible entry

Basic door entry

Rescuers will encounter closed doors during their searches. Before entering any structure or room,

rescuers must:

 Check door, knobs/handles and hinges for heat and thermal line

 Observe and assess for any smoke/fire

 Determine entry by the direction in which the door swings. Keep low, open the door slowly,

and be aware of the potential for backdraft.

Interior search and rescue

 Primary searches are conducted in the most critical areas first.

 Secondary searches are conducted after initial fire suppression/ventilation.

 Both searches follow a systematic search pattern. For example, the left- or right-handed search.

STANDARD SEARCH PROCEDURE

Mine rescue teams must follow certain protocols and procedures so that they can respond to

emergencies as efficiently and safely as possible. Search teams are a fundamental part of these

procedures. Teams consist of:

 A minimum of two personnel

 A rapid intervention team (RIT or back-up) on standby, established before entry

 Equipment (hand light, gas detection equipment, breathing apparatus, entry tool, thermal

imaging camera if available)

Fig 13-1: Standard

search procedure for

one- and two-search

team arrangements

13-3

The Primary Search is a rapid, systematic

search of the following:

 Most severely threatened areas

 Area with largest number of

casualties

 Remainder of hazard zone

 Extension exposures

Secondary searches are thorough,

systematic searches that ensure the entire

structure is free of casualties and hazards.

When possible, different personnel from

those who performed the primary search

should be used so that new sets of eyes can

Fig 13-2: Areas to cover in the primary search, in priority order

assess the scene.

Search patterns ensure that rescuers do not get lost or

disoriented during a search. The team captain will determine

which direction to use (left or right hand) prior to entering a

structure. Search patterns will follow the walls until they return

to the starting point. If rescuers keep turning in the original

direction as they go in and out of rooms and arrive at the entry

point, they have completed a search.

 If rescuers encounter a casualty or a problem during

the search, they must reverse the direction they used

upon entry to exit the structure.

 While performing the search, rescuers must maintain

visual, tactile, or verbal communication to keep track of

each other.

 Team members can extend their reach by using tools.

 How rescuers move will depend on the conditions found in

the search area. For example, in smoke conditions,

rescuers would crawl and move cautiously.

Areas to be searched

 Bathrooms, closets, and the spaces behind and under

furniture should be checked.

 Check areas near windows for casualties overcome while

attempting to reach a window.

Indicating that a room has been searched

 Close the door

 Indicate the room has been searched. Some examples are:

o Mark an “x” on the door

o If unable to close the door, place a chair behind the door so that the legs are pointing

outwards

o Communicate to command that a room has been searched

13-4

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