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Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Ministry of Energy and Mines Office of the Chief Inspector of Mines (2017) - page 1

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual

Ministry of Energy and Mines

Office of the Chief Inspector of Mines

Victoria

British Columbia

Canada

December 31, 1998

Revised 2014-15 (minor correction update - December 2016)

This manuscript is for educational purposes only. Nothing herein is to be regarded

as indicating approval or disapproval of any specific product or practice.

Foreword

Every mine has to maintain a mine rescue team to help ensure the safety of workers and property on

mine sites throughout B.C., Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. This manual has been crafted to

demonstrate the basic equipment, procedures, practices, and principles that mine rescue trainees need

to know before they respond to incidents at surface and underground mining operations.

Mine Rescue teams have bravely responded to incidents and disasters throughout northern and western

Canada for more than a century. It is through their training and practice that they have been able to

come back safe and sound. Likewise, mine officials must also be familiar with their roles and

responsibilities in the event of an emergency. Proper instruction must be complemented by individual

and collective efforts to master the skills, equipment, and knowledge needed to execute a mine

emergency response. This manual and training course represent the first steps you will take toward

being able to answer that call.

There are all sorts of incidents and emergencies that Mine Rescue teams can encounter, including

electrical fires, gas leaks, avalanches, and motor vehicle accidents. Mine Rescue can be dangerous work,

especially if it is not performed properly. Rescuers are responsible first for their safety and the safety of

their team, but some responses will also require that they tend to casualties in need of assistance. In

consulting the most up-to-date research as well as experts in government and industry, the committee

who created this manual have endeavoured to make certain that the information found in these pages

is as reliable, applicable, and above all, safe as possible.

Your Mine Rescue training will not end when you finish this manual and course. Being a part of a Mine

Rescue team means committing to a practice regime with your fellow Mine Rescuers to establish the

cohesion, communication, and trust needed to function in the stressful environment of an emergency

response. At times you may be called upon to assist in responses at other mining operations or to

emergencies off-site. Wherever your Mine Rescue training takes you, wear the “MINE RESCUE” sticker

on your hat with the pride and responsibility that it deserves.

Al Hoffman

Bruce Milligan

Peter Bengts

Chief Inspector of Mines,

Director,

Chief Inspector of Mines,

Ministry of Energy and Mines

Occupational Health and Safety

Worker’s Safety &

British Columbia

Yukon Workers' Compensation

Compensation Commission

Yukon

Northwest Territories and

Nunavut

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual

Chapter 1 Introduction

1-1

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual

Chapter 2 Mine Rescue

Organization

2-1

Fig 2.1: This table shows a rotation of mine rescue teams in a six-team arrangement. The arrangement allows for each rotation

to have six hours on duty (two hours active, two hours standby and two hours reserve) followed by six hours of rest.

DATE:

TIME

TEAM

DESCRIPTION

#

1

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

2

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

3

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

4

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

5

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

6

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

SIGNED:

Fig. 2.2: This table shows a rotation of Mine Rescue teams in a nine-team arrangement. With a nine-team rotation, the rest time

will be extended to match the teams deployed to the mine emergency.

DATE:

TIME

DESCRIPTION

TEAM #

1

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

2

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

3

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

4

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

STAND BY

5

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

RESERVE

6

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

7

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

8

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

9

RESERVE

STAND BY

ACTIVE

SIGNED:

2-4

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

The environment in which mine rescue teams

perform their duties demands that they be

provided with the appropriate personal

protective equipment.

The provision and use of appropriate protective

equipment will not, by themselves, assure

individual safety. All protective equipment

components have limitations that must be

recognized so that users will not overextend

their range of protection.

Extensive training in the care, use, and maintenance of protective equipment is essential to assure that

it will provide optimum protection. All members should be aware of the type of equipment needed for

different situations and know where to find it.

All equipment used must meet relevant health and safety legislation, standards, and regulations.

 Head protection

 Eye and face protection

 Hearing protection

 Respiratory protection

 Hand protection

 Foot protection

 Protective clothing

 Specialized equipment and tools (e.g., chainsaw chaps, extrication tools)

FRESH-AIR BASE/ZONE

A fresh-air base/zone is an area in which good respirable air has been established and can be

maintained indefinitely. It is the point of departure for the mine rescue team and no one should proceed

beyond the fresh-air base/zone without wearing respiratory protection. In choosing the base/zone,

consideration should be given to providing the following:

 A clean area with good lighting

 A safe location as close to the incident as possible

 An area for briefing and debriefing mine rescue teams

 Adequate space to perform the necessary work

 Necessary tools and supplies to carry out the work at hand

For underground fresh-air bases, consideration should also be given to make sure that:

 The travel way from the base to surface must always be assured of good air.

 Underground-to-surface communication is uninterrupted.

2-7

FIRST REPSONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

Rescue members should be competent in site-specific response procedures. In the event of any incident

involving hazardous materials, rescuers can refer to:

 The Emergency Response Guidebook for Incidents Involving Hazardous Materials

 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) or Information Sheets provided by the manufacturer for all

products on-site

 CANUTEC (Canadian Transport Emergency Centre, a 24-hour national emergency response

advisory service) and WISER (Wireless Information System for Emergency Responders)

 On-site expertise

PHYSICAL/EMOTIONAL STRESS IN CRITICAL INCIDENTS

A critical incident is an event that is outside the range of usual human experience and is psychologically

traumatic to the person.

Critical incidents may produce a wide range of stress reactions, which can appear immediately at the

scene, a few hours later or within a few days of the event. Stress reactions usually occur in four different

categories:

 Cognitive (thinking)

 Physical (body)

 Emotional (feelings)

 Behavioural (actions)

The more reactions experienced, the greater the impact on the individual. The longer the reactions last,

the more potential there is for permanent harm. These stresses can cause a wide variety of reactions:

Category

Symptoms

Cognitive

Poor concentration

Memory problems

Poor attention span

Difficulty with calculations

Indecision

Slowed problem solving

Emotional

Loss of emotional control

Feeling lost or overwhelmed

Depression

Anxiety/Fear

Guilt

Grief

Physical

Muscle tremors

Chest pains

Gastrointestinal distress

Difficulty breathing

Headaches

Elevated blood pressure

Behavioural

Excessive silence

Atypical behaviour

Withdrawal from contact

Sleep disturbance

Change in eating habits

Change in work habits

These conditions result from the effects of the body’s chemical emergency response system.

Following the completion of a mine rescue emergency response, mine rescue teams must hold a

debriefing. A Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) or other counselling procedures should be

conducted with all personnel directly involved in a Critical Incident. The debriefing should be held

immediately at the end of the emergency response and be facilitated by qualified professionals.

2-8

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual

Chapter 3 Environmental

Conditions

3-1

OBJECTIVES

Mine rescue teams should be aware of the special dangers associated with environmental conditions.

This chapter will provide a basic understanding of:

 Avalanche terms, concepts, and equipment

 Ice travel

 Thermal stress

CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Mines operating in avalanche-prone areas must develop an avalanche emergency response plan

tailored to their mine. Mine rescue personnel may be required to perform emergency response

activities that expose them to avalanche hazards. This chapter is intended to only provide basic

avalanche awareness.

A qualified avalanche safety officer must be identified, consulted, and lead the safe emergency

response in an active avalanche situation. The avalanche safety officer must conduct an avalanche risk

assessment and establish active avalanche safety measures prior to planning emergency operations.

An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a sloping surface that can occur at any time provided the

right conditions are present. Avalanches have three main parts:

 Starting zone (point of origin): Where the unstable snow first breaks away. An avalanche path

may have several starting zones. Characteristics of starting zones include: incline, slope aspect,

exposure to wind, elevation, exposure to sun, natural ground condition.

 Track (zone of transition): Below the starting zone, where the avalanche accelerates and

typically reaches maximum destructive potential. It will have the potential to overrun terrain

features and previous avalanche tracks. Avalanche areas can contain one or more tracks. These

tracks may be poorly or clearly defined.

 Run-out zone: Where the avalanche decelerates and finally comes to rest. It can be identified as

a zone where the bulk of the snow is deposited.

Avalanches may occur anywhere given the following

conditions:

 Geography, such as the natural topography of the

area, engineered land forms, and slope orientation.

 Snow accumulates on a moderate to steep slope

(30°-45°). Avalanches rarely start on slopes steeper

than 45° as snow sloughs off continuously rather

than accumulating.

 Snow conditions, such as:

o Snow pack (accumulation)

o Mass

o Layers of snow and bonding between facet

Fig 3.1 Slope steepness and avalanches

layers

o Environmental effects: Variation in temperature, wind, humidity

3-2

 An external event that triggers the slide. These can be:

o Natural: New snow, transported snow (wind), temperature changes, sun, rain, thawing

and animals.

o Human: Explosives, working on a slope, working below a slope, mobile equipment, and

recreational activities.

o Trigger points: Snow conditions, shallow areas/variable depth snow packs, points of

weakness (e.g., trees, rock outcrops) may all contribute to the development of

avalanche conditions.

Two types of avalanche are commonly recognized:

Loose Snow Avalanches may consist of dry powder snow or

wet snow. Dry snow avalanches are most common in

winter after storms and rare in spring or summer. Wet

snow avalanches consist of heavy, wet, sun-heated or rain-

rotted snow or wet new snow and are most common in

spring and summer, particularly on south-facing slopes.

These avalanches:

 Start from a point

 Are set in motion progressively

 Require snow with poor cohesion, similar to that of

dry sand

 Are usually confined to surface layers and therefore

relatively small

Slab Avalanches occur when a slab of fairly cohesive

Slab Avalanche

layers of snow, poorly bonded to the snow

underneath, breaks off along a fracture line. These

avalanches are by far the most dangerous. They are

set in motion simultaneously, over a large area and

may start in either shallow or deep snow layers.

Safety in Avalanche Zones

The successful rescue of a person buried in an avalanche very often depends upon actions taken by

unburied survivors. Teams performing rescue operations in an avalanche area must be mentally

prepared for the possibility that they too may be overtaken by an avalanche.

If crossing an avalanche track cannot be avoided, take the following precautions:

 Select the shortest possible route high on the slope or low in the run-out zone

 Plan an escape route.

 Wear mitts and hats. Tighten clothing and smaller packs. Loosen larger packs in case they need

to be quickly removed.

 Assign a spotter at the top and bottom of the track and agree on a warning signal.

 Cross quickly. If the crossing is narrow, one person crosses at a time. Otherwise, maintain space

between rescuers to minimize the risk of exposure to an avalanche track.

3-3

The following table shows the maximum allowable mass of a vehicle in motion for ice of various

thicknesses. Gold’s Formula for determining the maximum allowable mass is:

M=4 ×ℎ²

where M is the mass of the vehicle (kg) and h is the thickness of the ice (cm)

Ice Thickness - Clear Blue Lake Ice

Ice Thickness (cm)

Capacity (kg)

Ice Thickness (cm)

Capacity (kg)

Ice Thickness (cm)

Capacity (kg)

2.5

25

37.5

5,625

75

22,500

3.5

49

40

6,400

77.5

24,025

5

100

42.5

7,225

80

25,600

7.5

225

45

8,100

82.5

27,225

10

400

47.5

9,025

85

28,900

12.5

625

50

10,000

87.5

30,625

15

900

52.5

11,025

90

32,400

17.5

1,225

55

12,100

92.5

34,225

20

1,600

57.5

13,225

95

36,100

22.5

2,025

60

14,400

97.5

38,025

25

2,500

62.5

15,625

100

40,000

27.5

3,025

65

16,900

102.5

42,025

30

3,600

67.5

18,225

105

44,100

32.5

4,225

70

19,600

107.5

46,225

35

4,900

72.5

21,025

110

48,400

Table 3.1 - Ice Strength

3-5

THERMAL STRESS

Thermal stress refers to a range of physiological reactions to adverse temperature conditions. There are

many factors that contribute to these stresses. Mine rescuers must be able to recognize and adequately

respond to these conditions.

Hypothermia is a condition of lowered internal body-core temperature (exposure sickness). Failure to

recognize symptoms of hypothermia is the leading cause of death for people in the outdoors.

Hypothermia is caused by overexposure to a cold environment and can develop very quickly if proper

precautions are not taken. Hypothermia results from chilling by cold, wind, or water such that the body

loses heat faster than it can produce it.

Factors contributing to the development of hypothermia include:

 Inadequate clothing

 Alcohol or drugs in the body

Hypothermia and Water Immersion

 Wetness (perspiration, rain)

 Exhaustion, dehydration, and

If water

Exhaustion or

Expected survival

lack of nutrition

temperature (C) is...

Unconsciousness

time

 Wind and water

0

< 15 minutes

15-45 minutes

1-5

15-30 minutes

30-90 minutes

 Temperature

5-10

30-60 minutes

1-3 hours

 Duration of exposure

10-15

1-2 hours

1-6 hours

15-20

2-7 hours

2-40 hours

Symptoms of Hypothermia

20-25

3-12 hours

3 hours-indefinitely

Visible symptoms indicate the onset of

25-30

Indefinitely

Indefinitely

hypothermia. Its advance is marked by

recognizable stages.

Core

Stage

Temperature

Signs & Symptoms

(C)

Mild

37.2-36.1

Normal, shivering can begin

Hypothermia

36.1-35.0

Cold sensation, goose bumps, unable to perform complex tasks with hands,

shiver can be mild to severe, hands numb

Moderate

35.0-33.9

Shivering, intense, lack of muscle coordination becomes apparent, movements

Hypothermia

slow and labored, stumbling pace, mild confusion, may appear alert. Use

sobriety test: if unable to walk a 30 foot straight line, the person is hypothermic.

33.9-32.2

Violent shivering persists, difficulty speaking, sluggish thinking, amnesia starts to

appear, gross muscle movements sluggish, unable to use hands, stumbles

frequently, difficulty speaking, signs of depression, withdrawn.

Severe

32.2-30.0

Shivering stops, exposed skin blue of puffy, muscle coordination very poor,

Hypothermia

inability to walk, confusion, incoherent/irrational behavior, but may be able to

maintain posture and appearance of awareness

30.0-27.8

Muscle rigidity, semiconscious, stupor, loss of awareness of others, pulse and

respiration rate decrease, possible heart fibrillation

27.8-25.6

Unconscious, heart beat and respiration erratic, pulse may not be palpable

25.6-23.9

Pulmonary oedema, cardiac and respiratory failure, death. Death may occur

before this temperature is reached.

3-6

Bodily Heat Loss

The head and neck are the most critical heat-loss areas. Other body areas have high rates of heat loss

while a subject is holding still in cold water. Infrared pictures show that the sides of the chest (where

there is little muscle or fat) are the major routes for heat loss from the warm chest cavity. The groin area

also loses much heat due to the large blood vessels near the surface. If an effort is made to conserve

body heat, these regions deserve special attention.

Fig 3.2: This infrared

image of a body shows

high-heat areas (red) and

low-heat areas (blue)

Cold Water Survival Techniques

Mine rescuers that work near water require personal floatation devices (PFD). The onset of hypothermia

is much quicker for people immersed in cold water. These two techniques can extend predicted survival

times:

H.E.L.P. (Heat Escape Lessening Position)

This technique for cold water survival protects the parts of the body that

lose heat fastest. It increases predicted survival time by up to 50%. This

position requires a floatation device that maintains upper-body buoyancy.

Huddle Position

Predicted survival time can be increased by up to 50% if survivors huddle

together. In this position, the sides of the survivors’ chests are held close

together to prevent heat loss.

In cold water (<10 C), the average person can swim no more than one-tenth the distance they can in

warm water.

3-7

Wind Chill is the perceived decrease in air temperature felt by the body on exposed skin due to wind. It

must be considered an additional hazard when working in cold environments. The wind chill table

should be posted wherever the wind and temperature recorder is mounted.

3-10

electricity is released onto the surface, such as when a "live” wire lies on the ground, the electricity will

fan out from the point of contact.

During a fault to the ground, there is a rippling effect that can be likened to dropping a pebble into calm

water. In the pool of water, the wave created at the point of contact gets smaller as it spreads outward.

Similarly, in a "pool" of electricity, the energy is at full system voltage at the point of ground contact, but

as you move away from the contact point, the voltage drops progressively. This effect is known as

ground gradient.

Step and Touch Potential

The ground gradient, or voltage drop, creates two problems: step potential and touch potential.

Assume that a live downed wire is touching the ground and has

created a pool of electricity. If you stand with one foot near the

point of ground contact (at x voltage) and your other foot a step

away (at y voltage), the difference in voltage will cause electricity

to flow through your body. This effect is referred to as step

potential.

If rescuers find themselves within a ground gradient, they must

safely exit it. To do so, keep both feet in contact with each other

and hop or shuffle out of the affected area. When shuffling,

make certain that the feet are always in contact with one

another.

Similarly, electricity will flow through a body if it touches an

energized source with the hands, but the feet are at some

distance from the source. The difference in potential voltage

in this case is referred to as touch potential.

4-4

INJURIES CAUSED BY SHOCKS AND ELECTROCUTIONS

WARNING: Electricity always seeks the easiest path to the ground. People, who place themselves

between any two energized conductors, or any energized conductor and ground, will become part

of an electrical circuit that can kill or cause serious injury.

Effects of Electricity on the Body

The path electricity takes through the body is critical. For example, current passing through the heart or

brain is more life-threatening than current passing through the fingers. The expected effects from just a

fraction of this current for a few seconds are illustrated below.

Current level=mA

Probable Effect on Human Body

(Milliamperes)

1 mA

Slight tingling sensation.

Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing. Average individual can let go. However,

5mA

strong involuntary reactions to shocks in this range may lead to injuries.

Painful shock, begin to lose muscular control. Commonly referred to as the freezing

6mA-16mA

current or “Can’t let go" range.

Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe muscular contractions. Fractures can occur.

17mA-99mA

Individual cannot let go. Death is possible.

Ventricular fibrillation (uneven, uncoordinated pumping of the heart.) Muscular

100mA-2000mA

contraction and nerve damage begins to occur. Burns will occur. Death is likely.

> 2,000mA

Cardiac arrest, internal organ damage, and severe burns. Death is probable.

Any electrical hazards must be controlled before approaching a casualty. Electrical energy casualties

will require prompt and appropriate medical treatment.

Factors Affecting Severity of Injury

It is the current (amperage) that kills or injures. But the voltage, which pushes the current through the

body, also has an important effect. Persons exposed to household voltages may suffer a muscle spasm

and become locked-on to the electrical source until the current is turned off, or until they are dragged

clear by the weight of their body falling away from the contact. Relatively long periods of contact with

low voltage current cause many electrical fatalities.

At very high voltages, such as from power lines, the casualty is often quickly blown clear of the circuit.

This results in less internal damage, such as heart failure, but serious surface burns where the current

enters and leaves the body. Exposure to a large electric arc can result in injury from the intense heat or

from ultraviolet rays, which can cause serious eye damage.

Path of

Pressure

Degree of

electricity

Length of

of body

skin

Current

Voltage

Frequency

AC/DC

through

exposure

against

resistance

the body

source

4-5

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ENCOUNTERED BY SPECIFIC WORK GROUPS

Work Groups

Hazards

Photo

Welders

Responders should know all welders use electrical

systems to “Weld, Cut, or Braze”. They must be

aware of the electrical hazards and take positive

steps to eliminate and/or mitigate those hazards.

Crane

Contact with overhead power lines is a major cause

Operators

of fatalities in the industry. Electricity can travel

from a power line to a worker touching any part of

the crane or the load.

Haul Trucks

Tires can explode during or after contact with power

and Other

lines / lightning.

Heavy

If a vehicle contacts overhead power lines there may

Equipment

be a massive electrical current flowing through the

vehicle and its tires:

• This can cause the tires to explode on contact or

could cause the tires to start burning inside. Rescue

teams must consider their approach angle, safe

distances, and the size of the tire.

• This creates a build-up of gases and heat which

could cause the tire to explode at a later time, even

as much as 24 hours after the incident.

• The resulting explosion could potentially injure

persons in the proximity with flying debris.

• The vehicle should be isolated for a period of time

at a safe distance to avoid injury.

Ground

Buried power and communication lines pose a

Engagement

hazard to operators of equipment used during

Tools

trenching and excavation activities. Operators need

(excavators,

to be aware of the hazards posed by penetration of

dozers,

energized power lines and take positive steps to

graders, etc.)

eliminate the hazard before digging.

4-8

Airborne particulate concentrations are generally measured in milligrams per cubic metre of air

(mg/m³) and gaseous concentrations are measured as parts per million or % by volume.

Lower and Upper Explosive Limits refer to the

minimum (LEL) and maximum (UEL)

concentrations of a gas or vapour in air that

will ignite when exposed to an ignition source

provided there is sufficient oxygen to support

combustion.

Relative density (vapour density or specific

gravity) is the ratio of the density of a

substance to the density of a standard

substance under specified conditions. For

liquids and solids the standard is usually

water. For gases the standard is often air.

Fig 5.1 Relative density and Explosive range for Methane

The pH scale is a means of measuring a substance’s acidity or

alkalinity. The scale is broken down into 14 degrees. Pure

water has a pH of 7. A pH below 7 indicates that a substance

is acidic, while a pH above 7 indicates that a substance is basic

or alkaline. Both acidic and basic substances are corrosive,

but the severity increases the further away one gets from a

pH of 7.

Regulatory requirements and site-specific procedures dictate special precautions required for any

gases stored or transported in pressurized containers.

5-4

NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

PROPERTIES

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that, when breathed in even low

concentrations, will produce symptoms of poisoning. Carbon monoxide has an explosive range of

12.5%-74%. It is only slightly soluble in water and is not removed from the air to any extent by water

sprays. It is slightly lighter than air.

HOW FORMED

Carbon monoxide gas is one of the greatest chemical hazards to humans. It is a product of combustion in

normal blasting operations and the operation of internal combustion engines. It is also produced by

occurrences such as mine fires or gas explosions. It can be formed wherever organic compounds are

burned in an atmosphere with insufficient oxygen to carry the process of burning or oxidation to

completion.

EFFECTS ON HUMANS

When carbon monoxide is absorbed it reduces the capacity of the haemoglobin for carrying oxygen to

the tissues. The affinity of haemoglobin for carbon monoxide is about 300 times its affinity for oxygen.

This means that when even a small amount of carbon monoxide is present in the air breathed, the

haemoglobin will absorb the carbon monoxide in preference to the oxygen. It is this interference with

the oxygen supply to the body that produces the symptoms of poisoning.

Physiological Effects of Carbon Monoxide

CO in the Atmosphere (PPM)

Symptoms

0-35

No symptoms

36-200

Flu-like symptoms: runny nose, headache

201-800

Dizziness, drowsiness, vomiting in less than an hour

801+

Unconsciousness, brain damage, and death

5-9

MINE RESCUE GAS CHART - For General Reference Only (non-regulatory)

Substance

Chem.

Relative

Explosive

T.L.V.

I.D.L.H.

Properties

How Formed

Symbol

Density

Range

ACGIH

NIOSH

COT = Colourless,

(See individual gas sheet for further

Air = 1

%

Odourless,

information)

Tasteless

Asphyxiant

Not

COT

Incomplete comb. electrolysis of

Hydrogen

H₂

0.07

4-74

Listed

water, battery charging

YES

Not

COT

Decomposition of organic matter,

Methane

CH₄

0.55

5-15

Listed

carbonaceous rock, decaying timber,

component of natural gas

Ammonia

NH₃

0.60

16-25

YES

YES

Colourless,

Reaction of nitrogen & hydrogen in the

Strong odour

presence of a catalyst

Lighter

Acetylene

C₂H₂

0.91

2.8-81

Asphyxiant

Not

Colourless,

Water on calcium carbide

Listed

Distinct odour

Than

Air

YES

YES

Colourless, Bitter

Acid on sodium or potassium cyanide,

Hydrogen

HCN

0.94

5.6-40

Almond odour

produced during heat treating of drill

Cyanide

steel, may be released from tailings

where cyanide was used for mineral

recovery

YES

YES

COT

Fires, gas explosions, blasting,

Carbon

CO

0.97

12.5-74

incomplete combustion, diesel and gas

Monoxide

engine exhaust

Asphyxiant

Not

COT

Constituent of air,

Nitrogen

N₂

0.97

N/A

Listed

Commercial liquid or gas

AIR

1.00

N/A

Nitrogen 78.09 %, Oxygen 20.94%, Carbon Dioxide 0.03%, Argon & Other

Gasses 0.94%

N/A

Not

COT

Constituent of air, From

Oxygen

O₂

1.10

N/A

Listed

photosynthesis

YES

YES

Colourless,

Decomposition of some sulphur

Hydrogen

H₂S

1.19

4.3-45

Rotten Egg Odour

compounds, blasting sulphide ores,

Sulphide

decomposition of vegetable matter in

water, hydrochloric acid on sulphide

Carbon

CO₂

1.53

N/A

YES

YES

COT,

Constituent of air, breathing of

Heavier

Taste in high

humans & animals, decomposition or

Dioxide

concentration

combustion of organic compounds

Than

with presence of oxygen

Air

YES

Not

COT

Petroleum distillate

Propane

C₃H₈

1.56

2.4-9.5

Listed

Commercially

Scented

N/A

Not

Distinct fishy

Commercially manufactured

MAPP

N/A

1.58

1.8-11.7

Listed

Odour

YES

YES

Colourless,

Heating, burning or blasting sulphide

Sulphur

SO₂

2.20

N/A

Sulphur smell,

ores, burning of some diesel fuels

Dioxide

Acid taste

YES

YES

Green yellow,

Principally from electrolysis of salt

Chlorine

Cl₂

2.49

N/A

Bleach smell

YES

YES

Colourless to

One of the many oxides of nitrogen,

Nitrogen

NO₂

2.62

N/A

redden brown,

associated with burning & blasting,

Dioxide

Acid taste in high

arching, welding, diesel exhaust

concentration

Fig 5.1 General gas information for most commonly encountered gases

5-22

 Evaluate the consequences of operation before beginning.

 Examine the tool for damage before each use and keep all tools in good working order.

 Use the tool only for tasks for which it is designed.

 Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions when operating any tool.

ROTATING TOOLS

Used to assemble and disassemble

Common rotating tools include (L-R,

top to bottom) wrenches,

screwdrivers, pliers

PUSHING, PULLING, AND LIFTING

TOOLS

Use to extend reach or to exert

extra force on an object

Common tools include pike poles,

closet hooks, chains, winches,

come-alongs, lifting bags, hydraulic

jacks, cribbing and shoring

Rope Rescue Equipment (See Ch.

11)

6-3

PRYING AND SPREADING TOOLS

Used for gaining access

Common tools include pry bars,

scaling bars, hydraulic spreaders,

rams, claw bars/crow bars, rock

splitters, halligans, K tools

STRIKING TOOLS

Used to apply impact force or to

gain access

Common tools include axes,

hammers, sledgehammers, mallets,

pick heads, centre punches, and

chisels

6-4

CUTTING TOOLS

Used to sever an object

Common cutting tools include

knives, chain saws, reciprocating

saws, rotary saws, hacksaws,

cutting torches, bolt cutters,

hydraulic shears, scissors, diagonal

cutters, air chisels

ENERGY SOURCES

Provide independent energy in the

field

Common tools include power

generators, lighting plants,

hydraulic power source,

compressed air cylinder

6-5

HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE AND

SPILL TOOLS

Used to protect responders and

help with clean up

Common hazardous atmosphere

and spill tools include spill kits,

rakes, brooms, shovels, gas

detectors, overpack drums,

ventilation, respiratory

apparatuses, thermal imaging

devices, hazardous atmosphere

PPE and decontamination

equipment

FIRE APPLIANCES

Used to assist in fire suppression

Common fire appliances include

fire extinguishers, fire hoses,

nozzles and pumps

6-6

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS

Other tools encountered in mine

rescue include communication

devices, ladders, life lines, confined

space equipment (tripods,

harnesses, ventilation equipment),

tarpaulins, flares, first aid

equipment, traffic and hazard

control, tape, lock out devices

6-7

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual

Chapter 7 Gas Detection

Instruments

7-1

o Precision: The degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditions

show the same results.

o Dynamic Range: The ratio between the largest and smallest possible signals. The

smallest is the LOD and the largest is sensor saturation.

o Note: Follow all manufacturer’s specifications for application and use.

GAS DETECTOR TYPES

Colorimetric (Tube-style) indicators measure more than

200 organic and inorganic gases and vapours in the air.

The sealed glass tubes are filled with a granular material

coated with a chemical that changes colour when it

reacts to a particular gas or vapour.

 Before Use: Refer to manufacturer’s

instructions for the particular tube type.

o Perform a pump leak test.

o Ensure the direction arrow is oriented

toward the pump.

 Operation: A portable pump draws a known

volume of air through a detector tube designed

to measure the concentration. The colour

change is then read on a scale printed on the tube.

Drager (L) and Gastec (R) colorimetric tubes

 Considerations: Measurement accuracy, limits of detection, interferences,

temperature/humidity, shelf life, time period for which the colour stain is stable after sampling.

Readings from a short-term indicator tube should be compared to the appropriate short-term exposure

limits, such as TLV-STEL and TLV-C.

 Tube Storage and Shelf Life:

o Tubes have a shelf life. These expiration dates are printed on the box.

o Store properly by avoiding excessively low or high temperatures and direct sunlight.

 Advantages:

o Operation with one hand.

o Low weight and simple operation.

o Always ready for use (no batteries).

o Tubes for more than 200 different gases and vapours.

o Printed measuring scale on the tubes provide immediate reading of the result.

o Low maintenance.

 Limitations:

o Tubes and pumps are manufacturer-specific.

o No alarm system, therefore not recommended for continuous monitoring

o Dependent upon operator’s interpretation of results

o Application can require longer periods of time in atmospheres for results to appear (up

to several minutes)

o Limited shelf-life

o Only accurate within +/- 20%

o Many cross-sensitivities

7-3

o Range of application is dependent on humidity and temperature

o Requires proper storage, handling, and disposal

 Common types of detectors include Drager, Gastec

Drager CMS

This variety of gas tube tester follows the same chemical reaction

principles. The major differences are:

 Small tubes are contained within a plastic chip with a bar

code identifier

 Battery operated pump and tube reader

 Display screen indicating gas being tested, range, sampling

duration status and actual reading

The chip has 10 individual sample tubes. Each tube can only be used once. The tester scans the chip

when inserted into the reader and indicates the gas and range for which the chip is designed.

Electronic gas detectors

An electronic gas detector is a complex system that includes a sensor(s) surrounded by sensitive

electronics, alarms (visual, audible, vibrating), a battery and a display. All electronic gas detectors must

meet regulated manufacturer standards. Electronic gas detectors are available as single, multi-gas,

stationary (non-portable), and specialized units.

 Advantages:

o Multi-gas detectors use separate sensors for oxygen and combustible atmospheres.

o They can register multiple toxic gases in the same hand-held monitor.

o Many models have interchangeable-sensor capabilities.

o Will provide low-level and high-level alarms.

o Accidental power-off protection: requires the power-off button to be held continuously

for at least 3-5 seconds.

o Many are capable of internal data-logging

o Portable field docking stations are also available for several models

o Can have an internal motorized pump or a diffusion monitor with attachable pump that

allow the instrument to be used in a variety of applications including confined space

entry or to measure from greater distance or height

o More accurate than colorimetric tubes - accurate within +/- 10%

 Limitations:

o Sensor sensitivity and response to gas will degrade over time; Limited shelf life

o Gases recognized are sensor-specific

o Requires time to perform a pre-use procedure

o Sensors and batteries have a finite life

o Environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, dust, dirt and rough handling

all contribute to premature sensor degradation

BW GasAlert Quattro

Industrial Scientific Ventis MX4

Drager MX

7-4

Typical Life Span of Various Sensor Types

Oxygen sensors

1-5 years

Catalytic bead combustible gas sensors

3-5 years

Electrochemical toxic gas sensors

1-4 years (depending on type)

Infrared gas sensors

5-10 years

Photoionization gas sensors

2-4 years

PRACTICAL SKILLS FOR GAS DETECTION

Atmospheric sampling

Relative Density

The operator performing the sample tests is responsible

for:

 Following all manufacturer’s specifications and

guidelines

 Making sure that proper sampling techniques are

performed due to the stratification of gases that

may be present

 Proper sampling: the operator must sample prior

to entry, prior to re-entry, and continuously while

work is being completed.

 During underground exploration, gas testing

should be performed at intersections or where

conditions change.

 Sampling at the top, middle, and bottom of a space must be done in accordance with

manufacturer specifications.

o Sample every 1-2 metres (3-7 ft) due to the weights of gases. Some are lighter than air

(methane), some are slightly lighter (carbon monoxide), and some are heavier than air

(chlorine).

Bump Testing and Calibration

The most important elements of gas detector maintenance are

function (“bump”) testing and calibration. These tests can be

done either automatically via a docking station or manually.

Functional (“bump”) testing involves a brief exposure of the

monitor to a known concentration of gas(es) for the purpose of

verifying sensor and alarm operation.

 Manufacturers recommend that a bump test be

performed on every instrument prior to each day’s use.

 Bump tests are not measures of the instrument’s accuracy.

Docking stations used for bump tests

 Any time an instrument fails to respond properly during a bump test, a full calibration should be

completed successfully prior to use.

7-5

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual

Chapter 8 Respiratory

Protective Equipment

8-1

APPARATUS CONCEPTS

Mine rescue teams use both open-circuit and closed-circuit breathing apparatus.

In a non-self-contained breathing apparatus, oxygen from the atmosphere is drawn through a filter to

the rescuer’s breathing apparatus. In environments in which carbon monoxide is present, there must be

adequate oxygen in the atmosphere for a non-self-contained breathing apparatus to function properly.

In a self-contained breathing apparatus, breathable air is supplied from a cylinder or released as a

product of a chemical reaction that occurs in a component of the apparatus.

In an open-circuit apparatus, exhaled air is released into the surrounding atmosphere.

In a closed-circuit apparatus, exhaled air is recirculated within the system.

Positive Pressure versus Negative Pressure

The apparatus will deliver breathable oxygen/air to the wearer under positive pressure. A positive

pressure system will maintain an internal pressure higher than the external pressure.

The advantages of positive pressure:

 Reduces the potential for external atmospheric toxins (smoke, gases) to penetrate into the

system, i.e. if the facepiece seal is broken.

 No added breathing effort is required by the wearer (unrestricted).

A negative pressure system’s internal pressure is lower than the external pressure.

All makes and models of breathing apparatuses have manufacturer’s instructions for donning (putting

the apparatus on) and doffing (taking the apparatus off). Rescuers must train to the manufacturers’

procedures of the models used on their site.

Air-Purifying Respirators (APRs)

(non-self-contained, open-circuit)

APRs remove contaminants in the air by filtering out particulates (e.g., dusts, fumes, mists), gases, and

vapours. They require an adequate amount of oxygen (i.e., 19.5%) in the atmosphere to be used as they

do not create or supply oxygen for the wearer. They have a limited protection factor. Cartridge versions

are colour-coded for their respective atmospheric contaminant.

The masks come in a variety of forms, including (from L-R) disposable, half-face cartridge and full-face cartridge models.

Fit tests shall be performed for all mask type respirators. Ensure compliance with local regulations,

standards, and legislation.

8-3

Fig 8-1: How a Self-Rescue functions

8-5

SELF-CONTAINED SELF-RESCUERS (SCSR)

(Closed Circuit, Self-Contained)

Oxygen-generating self-rescuers are designed strictly for self-rescue and to function completely

independent of the surrounding atmosphere.

Operation

 Oxygen is released by the chemical reaction of

moisture from the exhaled breath mixing with the

potassium superoxide (KO₂). This reaction produces

heat. A second reaction takes place between the

newly created potassium hydroxide and the carbon

dioxide from the exhaled breath, which

retains/absorbs the carbon dioxide.

 The oxygen is inhaled from the breathing bag,

which also serves as a breathing air reservoir.

 A heat exchanger is built into the breathing tube to

cool the air before inhalation.

 A quick-start system covers the immediate oxygen

requirements of the user until the chemical of the canister becomes activated.

A number of oxygen generating self-rescuers are available on the market today. Some include:

From L-R: Drager Oxy 3000/6000, Drager Oxy SR 90 and CSE Self-Rescuer Long Duration

8-6

CLOSED-CIRCUIT BREATHING APPARATUS (CCBA)

(Closed circuit, self-contained, positive pressure, re-breather)

A CCBA’s main functions are to absorb carbon dioxide and provide oxygen. CCBAs also recycle the

unused oxygen from the wearer’s exhaled breath. The recycled air is enriched with oxygen from a

compressed oxygen cylinder prior to inhalation.

The positive pressure inside the facepiece protects the wearer from a potentially toxic environment.

Modern CCBAs maintain positive pressure by using springs on the breathing bag/chamber and a demand

valve when the internal volume of oxygen in the system has decreased.

The increased duration for the wearer (rated up to four hours) allows CCBAs to be used in incidents at

both surface and underground mines.

Two common positive pressure CCBAs are:

 Dräger - PSS BG4

 Bio Marine - BioPak 240R

Drager PSS BG4

Bio Marine BioPak 240R

8-7

SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS (SCBA)

(Open Circuit, Self-Contained, Positive Pressure)

SCBAs protect the wearer from hazardous atmospheres by providing breathable air.

Several manufacturers build SCBAs for emergency response and industrial use. There are many models

of the control configuration but the basic components and operating principles remain the same.

Open-circuit SCBAs use filtered, compressed air. Most open-circuit systems have two regulators: a first-

stage regulator to reduce the pressure of the compressed air in the cylinder and a second stage

regulator to reduce it even further to a level just above atmospheric pressure. This air is then fed to the

facepiece via a demand valve which is activated by inhalation. When the wearer exhales, the breath

exits the facepiece via the exhalation valve to the outside atmosphere thus making it an open circuit.

SCBAs have purge/bypass valves for emergency situations.

The four major components of the SCBA are:

 Backpack assembly: Designed to hold the air cylinder on the rescuer’s back.

 Regulator: Reduces the cylinder pressure to flow and pressure levels required for inhalation.

 Facepiece (mask): Designed to deliver low-pressure air from the regulator into the mouth and

nose of the rescuer. It may also provide some protection from facial burns and contact of smoke

and fire gases with the eyes.

 Air cylinder: Designed to store a quantity of breathable air under pressure. Depending on

construction and size, cylinders may be rated for 30-90 minutes at pressures between 2,216-

5,500 psi.

Drager PSS 7000, Scott Safety Air Pak X3, MSA G1 SCBA

Rapid Intervention Crew/Company Universal Air Connections

(RIC UACs) allow teams to directly attach two air cylinders of

any kind to provide air to SCBAs worn by casualties or other

rescuers when their supply is low. It is not for quick charging,

buddy-breathing or any other unapproved use. If the unit has a

RIC connection, it is a standard fitting that is dedicated for

emergency use: the Rapid Intervention Crew/Company

Universal Air Connection (RIC UAC), NFPA 1981 (2013 edition).

8-8

Personal Alert Safety System (PASS)

A PASS device is used by the wearer of an SCBA as a safety alarm with a

high volume siren if the wearer remains motionless, such as when the

wearer has collapsed or is trapped (usually set at pre-alarm when

motionless; full alarm of motionless for 30 seconds). It can also be

triggered manually. The loud noise provides a location for the rescue

personnel to follow. NFPA-compliant SCBA models have the PASS system

built into the unit. It is activated automatically when the SCBA air is

turned on. Some non-built-in models have a key which turns on the

device. The key is then given to the person in charge of team entry before the SCBA team enters a

building or structure.

The duration of an SCBA’s air supply is based on a number of factors:

 The user’s level of exertion.

 The user’s physical condition.

 The degree to which the user’s breathing is affected by excitement, fear or other emotions.

 The degree of training or experience.

 The type of apparatus.

 The purity of the compressed air (possible presence of carbon dioxide)

 Work at pressures above or below normal atmosphere

CYLINDER TESTING AND CHARGING

Recharging Compressed Air Cylinders

In a cascade storage system, several large cylinders are used to

bring a small cylinder up to a desired pressure. This is achieved by

always using the supply cylinder with the lowest usable pressure

first, then the cylinder with the next lowest pressure, etc. A

cascade system may be connected to a purification system and air

compressor approved for breathable air (CSA Standard Z-180.1-

00).

Breathing air cylinders may also be charged directly from an

approved breathable air compressor or compressor/storage tank

configuration.

Recharging Oxygen Cylinders

Oxygen cylinders are recharged by transferring oxygen from large-

capacity medical-grade oxygen cylinders via high-pressure pump.

Hydrostatic testing involves pressurizing a cylinder above its

operating pressure to established safety standards to ensure

durability of the cylinder over time. The frequency of hydrostatic

testing for a compressed cylinder depends on the material and

model used.

8-9

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual

Chapter 9 Oxygen Therapy

9-1

Casualties with Chronic Breathing Problems

People with ongoing or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are chronically short of breath

and have difficulty breathing. People at the severe stages of this condition are rarely found in a working

environment. If providing first aid and oxygen therapy is needed, administer as one would to any other

casualty but monitor breathing very closely. If required, reduce flow rate but do not stop oxygen therapy

once it has been started.

OXYGEN THERAPY EQUIPMENT

The Oxygen Therapy Unit

An oxygen therapy unit has three main components: an oxygen cylinder, a regulator, and a delivery

tube with a facemask. Portable units also require a carrying case designed to protect the unit.

Oxygen cylinders

Medical-grade oxygen (approximately 99% oxygen) is supplied as a compressed gas at 2,000 psi in a

variety of standard cylinder sizes. The sizes of cylinders are:

 D (412 L)

 E (682 L)

 M (3,540 L)

 K (6,900 L)

Note: A “+” sign stamped at the top of the cylinder indicates

that pressure can be increased by 10% to 2,200 psi.

Whatever the size of the cylinder used, they are subject to

the requirements of hydrostatic testing. The hydrostatic test

date is stamped on the cylinder. A five-pointed star stamped

at the top of the cylinder indicates that the hydrostatic test

date has been extended an additional five years, and then

must be tested every 10 years afterward.

Cylinder markings

D and E cylinders have a pin-indexed medical post outlet with a valve operated by a purpose-specific

wrench. Others have a special CGA-540 oxygen threaded outlet and a hand valve. Both connections are

designed to be unique and prevent inadvertent connection to any gas other than oxygen.

Pin-indexed medical post outlet (L), threaded outlet (R)

9-4

Pressure Regulators

The regulator assembly has two purposes:

 Reduces the pressure of oxygen delivered from the cylinder to between 40 and 70 psi.

 Regulates the rate of flow (in litres per minute or Lpm) of the delivered oxygen.

The regulator assembly attaches to the cylinder with a yoke containing corresponding pins that fit the

medical post and a screw-clamping device. Cylinders with a threaded connection are attached via a

corresponding female thread on the regulator assembly. Adaptors are available to attach threaded and

yoke-type connections together.

The adaptor used to fit a yoke-type regulator assembly onto a threaded cylinder can be particularly

valuable in a major emergency situation. Using these adaptors will prevent gases other than oxygen

from being connected.

Oxygen Mask and Delivery Tube

There are several models of delivery masks available.

Delivery tubes are included with the masks. All but the

one-time-use simple mask require more extensive

training.

9-5

CAREvent

To use this device for oxygen therapy, follow the same steps as one would for the normal oxygen

therapy unit. The only difference is that a 3,000-psi Drager BG4 cylinder can be used. The delivery hose

and mask used with the normal oxygen therapy unit will work on this regulator.

The handheld resuscitator can also be used for oxygen therapy on a breathing casualty. The device will

act in the “on demand” mode much like a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). As the casualty

inhales, a valve opens allowing the oxygen to flow into the face piece or nose cup.

Follow these steps to prepare the handheld resuscitator for use:

1. Ensure oxygen flow adjustment is set at zero

2. Connect the supply cylinder to the regulator

3. Connect the resuscitator delivery hose to the regulator

4. Connect the delivery hose to the resuscitator

5. Attach the resuscitator to the face piece or nose cup

6. Turn oxygen supply cylinder on

7. Place face piece or nose cup on casualty (Adjust straps accordingly)

Note: All connections should be “finger” tightened only

This manual will not describe the functions the CAREvent® DRA handheld rescuer can provide for

a non-breathing casualty. Please refer to site specific training and always follow the

manufacturer’s recommendations.

Oxygen delivery hose

Oxygen delivery hose, CAREvent®

Oxygen regulator for use for use with a

and mask connected to

resuscitator and face piece

CAREvent® resuscitator

regulator with BG4

connected to a DSS outlet on

oxygen cylinder. (Ready

regulator with oxygen cylinder

for “normal” oxygen

therapy delivery)

9-6

Content      ..      1       2         ..

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